feat(web): consistent rate limit information (#13510)

This drastically improves the user feedback surrounding rate limited
endpoints displaying information about how long the user should wait.
This also drastically improves the related tooling including adding a
react hook and go funcs to ensure the desired outcome is always
achieved.

api/openapi.yml

@@ -714,9 +714,9 @@ paths:
           headers:
             Retry-After:
               schema:
-                type: string
+                type: integer
-                format: http-date
+                minimum: 0
-              description: The date time that the request can be retried.
+              description: The number of seconds to wait before the request can be retried.
       security:
         - authelia_auth: []
   /api/reset-password/identity/finish:
@@ -753,9 +753,9 @@ paths:
           headers:
             Retry-After:
               schema:
-                type: string
+                type: integer
-                format: http-date
+                minimum: 0
-              description: The date time that the request can be retried.
+              description: The number of seconds to wait before the request can be retried.
       security:
         - authelia_auth: []
   /api/reset-password:
@@ -791,9 +791,9 @@ paths:
           headers:
             Retry-After:
               schema:
-                type: string
+                type: integer
-                format: http-date
+                minimum: 0
-              description: The date time that the request can be retried.
+              description: The number of seconds to wait before the request can be retried.
       security:
         - authelia_auth: []
     delete:
@@ -826,9 +826,9 @@ paths:
           headers:
             Retry-After:
               schema:
-                type: string
+                type: integer
-                format: http-date
+                minimum: 0
-              description: The date time that the request can be retried.
+              description: The number of seconds to wait before the request can be retried.
       security:
         - authelia_auth: []
   {{- end }}
@@ -940,9 +940,9 @@ paths:
           headers:
             Retry-After:
               schema:
-                type: string
+                type: integer
-                format: http-date
+                minimum: 0
-              description: The date time that the request can be retried.
+              description: The number of seconds to wait before the request can be retried.
       security:
         - authelia_auth: []
     put:
@@ -983,9 +983,9 @@ paths:
           headers:
             Retry-After:
               schema:
-                type: string
+                type: integer
-                format: http-date
+                minimum: 0
-              description: The date time that the request can be retried.
+              description: The number of seconds to wait before the request can be retried.
       security:
         - authelia_auth: []
   /api/user/session/elevation/{id}:
@@ -1211,9 +1211,9 @@ paths:
           headers:
             Retry-After:
               schema:
-                type: string
+                type: integer
-                format: http-date
+                minimum: 0
-              description: The date time that the request can be retried.
+              description: The number of seconds to wait before the request can be retried.
       security:
         - authelia_auth: []
     delete:
@@ -1558,9 +1558,9 @@ paths:
           headers:
             Retry-After:
               schema:
-                type: string
+                type: integer
-                format: http-date
+                minimum: 0
-              description: The date time that the request can be retried.
+              description: The number of seconds to wait before the request can be retried.
       security:
         - authelia_auth: []
   /api/secondfactor/duo_devices:
@@ -2141,9 +2141,9 @@ paths:
           headers:
             Retry-After:
               schema:
-                type: string
+                type: integer
-                format: http-date
+                minimum: 0
-              description: The date time that the request can be retried.
+              description: The number of seconds to wait before the request can be retried.
         "500":
           description: Internal Server Error
           content:

experimental/embed/config_test.go

@@ -28,6 +28,7 @@ func TestNewConfiguration(t *testing.T) {
 			paths: []string{"../../internal/configuration/test_resources/config.webauthn.yml"},
 			keys: []string{
 				"regulation.max_retries",
+				"server.endpoints.rate_limits.health.enable",
 				"server.endpoints.rate_limits.openid_connect_introspection.enable",
 				"server.endpoints.rate_limits.openid_connect_pushed_authorization_request.enable",
 				"server.endpoints.rate_limits.openid_connect_revocation.enable",
@@ -105,6 +106,7 @@ func TestNewConfiguration(t *testing.T) {
 				"server.endpoints.authz.forward-auth.authn_strategies[].name",
 				"server.endpoints.authz.forward-auth.implementation",
 				"server.endpoints.authz.legacy.implementation",
+				"server.endpoints.rate_limits.health.enable",
 				"server.endpoints.rate_limits.openid_connect_introspection.enable",
 				"server.endpoints.rate_limits.openid_connect_pushed_authorization_request.enable",
 				"server.endpoints.rate_limits.openid_connect_revocation.enable",

internal/configuration/defaults.go

@@ -4,23 +4,27 @@
 
 package configuration
 
-var defaults = map[string]any{
+import (
-	"regulation.max_retries": 3,
+	"github.com/authelia/authelia/v4/internal/configuration/schema"
-	"server.endpoints.rate_limits.openid_connect_introspection.enable":                true,
+)
-	"server.endpoints.rate_limits.openid_connect_pushed_authorization_request.enable": true,
+
-	"server.endpoints.rate_limits.openid_connect_revocation.enable":                   true,
+var defaults = newDefaults()
-	"server.endpoints.rate_limits.openid_connect_token.enable":                        true,
+
-	"server.endpoints.rate_limits.openid_connect_userinfo.enable":                     true,
+func newDefaults() (values map[string]any) {
-	"server.endpoints.rate_limits.reset_password_start.enable":                        true,
+	values = map[string]any{
-	"server.endpoints.rate_limits.reset_password_finish.enable":                       true,
+		"regulation.max_retries":                        3,
-	"server.endpoints.rate_limits.second_factor_totp.enable":                          true,
+		"webauthn.selection_criteria.discoverability":   "preferred",
-	"server.endpoints.rate_limits.second_factor_duo.enable":                           true,
+		"webauthn.selection_criteria.user_verification": "preferred",
-	"server.endpoints.rate_limits.second_factor_password.enable":                      true,
+		"webauthn.metadata.cache_policy":                "strict",
-	"server.endpoints.rate_limits.session_elevation_start.enable":                     true,
+	}
-	"server.endpoints.rate_limits.session_elevation_finish.enable":                    true,
+
-	"webauthn.selection_criteria.discoverability":                                     "preferred",
+	limits := schema.ServerEndpointRateLimits{}
-	"webauthn.selection_criteria.user_verification":                                   "preferred",
+
-	"webauthn.metadata.cache_policy":                                                  "strict",
+	for _, endpoint := range limits.Endpoints() {
+		values["server.endpoints.rate_limits."+endpoint.Name+".enable"] = true
+	}
+
+	return values
 }
 
 // Defaults returns a copy of the defaults.

internal/configuration/defaults_test.go

@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: 2026 Authelia
+//
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+
+package configuration
+
+import (
+	"reflect"
+	"testing"
+
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/assert"
+
+	"github.com/authelia/authelia/v4/internal/configuration/schema"
+)
+
+func TestShouldEnableAllServerEndpointRateLimitsByDefault(t *testing.T) {
+	rt := reflect.TypeFor[schema.ServerEndpointRateLimits]()
+
+	for i := range rt.NumField() {
+		name := rt.Field(i).Tag.Get("koanf")
+
+		t.Run(name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			assert.Equal(t, true, defaults["server.endpoints.rate_limits."+name+".enable"])
+		})
+	}
+}

internal/configuration/schema/server.go

@@ -95,6 +95,46 @@ type ServerEndpointRateLimits struct {
 	OpenIDConnectRevocation                 ServerEndpointRateLimit `koanf:"openid_connect_revocation" yaml:"openid_connect_revocation,omitempty" toml:"openid_connect_revocation,omitempty" json:"openid_connect_revocation,omitempty" jsonschema:"title=OpenID Connect Revocation" jsonschema_description:"Configures the rate limiter which applies to the OpenID Connect 1.0 Revocation Endpoint."`
 }
 
+// Endpoints returns a ServerEndpointRateLimitEndpoint for every configurable rate limiter in field order.
+func (r *ServerEndpointRateLimits) Endpoints() []ServerEndpointRateLimitEndpoint {
+	return []ServerEndpointRateLimitEndpoint{
+		{Name: "reset_password_start", Config: &r.ResetPasswordStart},
+		{Name: "reset_password_finish", Config: &r.ResetPasswordFinish},
+		{Name: "second_factor_totp", Config: &r.SecondFactorTOTP},
+		{Name: "second_factor_duo", Config: &r.SecondFactorDuo},
+		{Name: "second_factor_password", Config: &r.SecondFactorPassword},
+		{Name: "session_elevation_start", Config: &r.SessionElevationStart, Weight: weightElevatedSessionCodeLifespan},
+		{Name: "health", Config: &r.Health},
+		{Name: "session_elevation_finish", Config: &r.SessionElevationFinish, Weight: weightElevatedSessionElevationLifespan},
+		{Name: "openid_connect_token", Config: &r.OpenIDConnectToken},
+		{Name: "openid_connect_pushed_authorization_request", Config: &r.OpenIDConnectPushedAuthorizationRequest},
+		{Name: "openid_connect_userinfo", Config: &r.OpenIDConnectUserInfo},
+		{Name: "openid_connect_introspection", Config: &r.OpenIDConnectIntrospection},
+		{Name: "openid_connect_revocation", Config: &r.OpenIDConnectRevocation},
+	}
+}
+
+// ServerEndpointRateLimitEndpoint describes a single endpoint rate limit of ServerEndpointRateLimits.
+type ServerEndpointRateLimitEndpoint struct {
+	// Name is the configuration key of the endpoint rate limit.
+	Name string
+
+	// Config is the endpoint rate limit configuration.
+	Config *ServerEndpointRateLimit
+
+	// Weight returns the duration each default bucket period is multiplied by. A nil Weight means the default bucket
+	// periods are absolute durations.
+	Weight func(config *Configuration) time.Duration
+}
+
+func weightElevatedSessionCodeLifespan(config *Configuration) time.Duration {
+	return config.IdentityValidation.ElevatedSession.CodeLifespan
+}
+
+func weightElevatedSessionElevationLifespan(config *Configuration) time.Duration {
+	return config.IdentityValidation.ElevatedSession.ElevationLifespan
+}
+
 // ServerEndpointRateLimit represents the rate limiter configuration for a single endpoint.
 type ServerEndpointRateLimit struct {
 	Enable  bool                            `koanf:"enable" yaml:"enable" toml:"enable" json:"enable" jsonschema:"default=true,title=Enable" jsonschema_description:"Enables the rate limiter for this endpoint."`

internal/configuration/schema/server_test.go

@@ -0,0 +1,74 @@
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: 2026 Authelia
+//
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+
+package schema
+
+import (
+	"reflect"
+	"testing"
+	"time"
+
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/assert"
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+)
+
+func TestServerEndpointRateLimitsEndpoints(t *testing.T) {
+	limits := &ServerEndpointRateLimits{}
+
+	endpoints := limits.Endpoints()
+
+	rv := reflect.ValueOf(limits).Elem()
+	rt := rv.Type()
+
+	require.Len(t, endpoints, rt.NumField())
+
+	for i := range rt.NumField() {
+		field := rt.Field(i)
+
+		t.Run(field.Name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			assert.Equal(t, field.Tag.Get("koanf"), endpoints[i].Name)
+			assert.Same(t, rv.Field(i).Addr().Interface().(*ServerEndpointRateLimit), endpoints[i].Config)
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func TestServerEndpointRateLimitsEndpointsWeight(t *testing.T) {
+	config := &Configuration{
+		IdentityValidation: IdentityValidation{
+			ElevatedSession: IdentityValidationElevatedSession{
+				CodeLifespan:      time.Minute,
+				ElevationLifespan: time.Hour,
+			},
+		},
+	}
+
+	testCases := []struct {
+		name     string
+		expected time.Duration
+	}{
+		{"session_elevation_start", time.Minute},
+		{"session_elevation_finish", time.Hour},
+	}
+
+	limits := &ServerEndpointRateLimits{}
+
+	weighted := map[string]ServerEndpointRateLimitEndpoint{}
+
+	for _, endpoint := range limits.Endpoints() {
+		if endpoint.Weight != nil {
+			weighted[endpoint.Name] = endpoint
+		}
+	}
+
+	require.Len(t, weighted, len(testCases))
+
+	for _, tc := range testCases {
+		t.Run(tc.name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			endpoint, ok := weighted[tc.name]
+
+			require.True(t, ok)
+			assert.Equal(t, tc.expected, endpoint.Weight(config))
+		})
+	}
+}

internal/configuration/validator/server.go

@@ -322,48 +322,31 @@ func validateServerEndpointsHealth(config *schema.Configuration, validator *sche
 }
 
 func validateServerEndpointsRateLimits(config *schema.Configuration, validator *schema.StructValidator) {
-	validateServerEndpointsRateLimitDefault("openid_connect_pushed_authorization_request", &config.Server.Endpoints.RateLimits.OpenIDConnectPushedAuthorizationRequest, schema.DefaultServerConfiguration.Endpoints.RateLimits.OpenIDConnectPushedAuthorizationRequest, validator)
+	defaults := schema.DefaultServerConfiguration.Endpoints.RateLimits.Endpoints()
-	validateServerEndpointsRateLimitDefault("openid_connect_token", &config.Server.Endpoints.RateLimits.OpenIDConnectToken, schema.DefaultServerConfiguration.Endpoints.RateLimits.OpenIDConnectToken, validator)
 
-	validateServerEndpointsRateLimitDefault("health", &config.Server.Endpoints.RateLimits.Health, schema.DefaultServerConfiguration.Endpoints.RateLimits.Health, validator)
+	for i, endpoint := range config.Server.Endpoints.RateLimits.Endpoints() {
-	validateServerEndpointsRateLimitDefault("reset_password_start", &config.Server.Endpoints.RateLimits.ResetPasswordStart, schema.DefaultServerConfiguration.Endpoints.RateLimits.ResetPasswordStart, validator)
+		validateServerEndpointsRateLimitDefault(config, endpoint, defaults[i].Config.Buckets, validator)
-	validateServerEndpointsRateLimitDefault("reset_password_finish", &config.Server.Endpoints.RateLimits.ResetPasswordFinish, schema.DefaultServerConfiguration.Endpoints.RateLimits.ResetPasswordFinish, validator)
-
-	validateServerEndpointsRateLimitDefault("second_factor_totp", &config.Server.Endpoints.RateLimits.SecondFactorTOTP, schema.DefaultServerConfiguration.Endpoints.RateLimits.SecondFactorTOTP, validator)
-	validateServerEndpointsRateLimitDefault("second_factor_duo", &config.Server.Endpoints.RateLimits.SecondFactorDuo, schema.DefaultServerConfiguration.Endpoints.RateLimits.SecondFactorDuo, validator)
-	validateServerEndpointsRateLimitDefault("second_factor_password", &config.Server.Endpoints.RateLimits.SecondFactorPassword, schema.DefaultServerConfiguration.Endpoints.RateLimits.SecondFactorPassword, validator)
-
-	validateServerEndpointsRateLimitDefaultWeighted("session_elevation_start", &config.Server.Endpoints.RateLimits.SessionElevationStart, schema.DefaultServerConfiguration.Endpoints.RateLimits.SessionElevationStart, config.IdentityValidation.ElevatedSession.CodeLifespan, validator)
-	validateServerEndpointsRateLimitDefaultWeighted("session_elevation_finish", &config.Server.Endpoints.RateLimits.SessionElevationFinish, schema.DefaultServerConfiguration.Endpoints.RateLimits.SessionElevationFinish, config.IdentityValidation.ElevatedSession.ElevationLifespan, validator)
-}
-
-func validateServerEndpointsRateLimitDefault(name string, config *schema.ServerEndpointRateLimit, defaults schema.ServerEndpointRateLimit, validator *schema.StructValidator) {
-	if len(config.Buckets) == 0 {
-		config.Buckets = make([]schema.ServerEndpointRateLimitBucket, len(defaults.Buckets))
-
-		copy(config.Buckets, defaults.Buckets)
-
-		return
 	}
-
-	validateServerEndpointsRateLimitBuckets(name, config, validator)
 }
 
-func validateServerEndpointsRateLimitDefaultWeighted(name string, config *schema.ServerEndpointRateLimit, defaults schema.ServerEndpointRateLimit, weight time.Duration, validator *schema.StructValidator) {
+func validateServerEndpointsRateLimitDefault(config *schema.Configuration, endpoint schema.ServerEndpointRateLimitEndpoint, defaults []schema.ServerEndpointRateLimitBucket, validator *schema.StructValidator) {
-	if len(config.Buckets) == 0 {
+	if len(endpoint.Config.Buckets) == 0 {
-		config.Buckets = make([]schema.ServerEndpointRateLimitBucket, len(defaults.Buckets))
+		endpoint.Config.Buckets = make([]schema.ServerEndpointRateLimitBucket, len(defaults))
 
-		for i := range defaults.Buckets {
+		copy(endpoint.Config.Buckets, defaults)
-			config.Buckets[i] = schema.ServerEndpointRateLimitBucket{
+
-				Period:   weight * defaults.Buckets[i].Period,
+		if endpoint.Weight != nil {
-				Requests: defaults.Buckets[i].Requests,
+			weight := endpoint.Weight(config)
+
+			for i := range endpoint.Config.Buckets {
+				endpoint.Config.Buckets[i].Period *= weight
 			}
 		}
 
 		return
 	}
 
-	validateServerEndpointsRateLimitBuckets(name, config, validator)
+	validateServerEndpointsRateLimitBuckets(endpoint.Name, endpoint.Config, validator)
 }
 
 func validateServerEndpointsRateLimitBuckets(name string, config *schema.ServerEndpointRateLimit, validator *schema.StructValidator) {

internal/configuration/validator/server_test.go

@@ -58,6 +58,11 @@ func TestShouldSetDefaultConfigRateLimits(t *testing.T) {
 				},
 			},
 			expected: schema.ServerEndpointRateLimits{
+				Health: schema.ServerEndpointRateLimit{
+					Buckets: []schema.ServerEndpointRateLimitBucket{
+						{Period: 1 * time.Minute, Requests: 60},
+					},
+				},
 				ResetPasswordStart: schema.ServerEndpointRateLimit{
 					Buckets: []schema.ServerEndpointRateLimitBucket{
 						{Period: 10 * time.Minute, Requests: 5},
@@ -84,6 +89,12 @@ func TestShouldSetDefaultConfigRateLimits(t *testing.T) {
 						{Period: 2 * time.Minute, Requests: 15},
 					},
 				},
+				SecondFactorPassword: schema.ServerEndpointRateLimit{
+					Buckets: []schema.ServerEndpointRateLimitBucket{
+						{Period: 5 * time.Minute, Requests: 30},
+						{Period: 60 * time.Minute, Requests: 40},
+					},
+				},
 				SessionElevationStart: schema.ServerEndpointRateLimit{
 					Buckets: []schema.ServerEndpointRateLimitBucket{
 						{Period: schema.DefaultIdentityValidation.ElevatedSession.CodeLifespan * 1, Requests: 3},
@@ -114,6 +125,30 @@ func TestShouldSetDefaultConfigRateLimits(t *testing.T) {
 						{Period: time.Hour, Requests: 100},
 					},
 				},
+				OpenIDConnectUserInfo: schema.ServerEndpointRateLimit{
+					Buckets: []schema.ServerEndpointRateLimitBucket{
+						{Period: 1 * time.Minute, Requests: 30},
+						{Period: 2 * time.Minute, Requests: 40},
+						{Period: 10 * time.Minute, Requests: 50},
+						{Period: time.Hour, Requests: 100},
+					},
+				},
+				OpenIDConnectIntrospection: schema.ServerEndpointRateLimit{
+					Buckets: []schema.ServerEndpointRateLimitBucket{
+						{Period: 1 * time.Minute, Requests: 30},
+						{Period: 2 * time.Minute, Requests: 40},
+						{Period: 10 * time.Minute, Requests: 50},
+						{Period: time.Hour, Requests: 100},
+					},
+				},
+				OpenIDConnectRevocation: schema.ServerEndpointRateLimit{
+					Buckets: []schema.ServerEndpointRateLimitBucket{
+						{Period: 1 * time.Minute, Requests: 30},
+						{Period: 2 * time.Minute, Requests: 40},
+						{Period: 10 * time.Minute, Requests: 50},
+						{Period: time.Hour, Requests: 100},
+					},
+				},
 			},
 		},
 	}
@@ -128,14 +163,7 @@ func TestShouldSetDefaultConfigRateLimits(t *testing.T) {
 			assert.Len(t, validator.Errors(), 0)
 			assert.Len(t, validator.Warnings(), 0)
 
-			assert.Equal(t, tc.expected.OpenIDConnectPushedAuthorizationRequest, tc.config.Server.Endpoints.RateLimits.OpenIDConnectPushedAuthorizationRequest)
+			assert.Equal(t, tc.expected, tc.config.Server.Endpoints.RateLimits)
-			assert.Equal(t, tc.expected.OpenIDConnectToken, tc.config.Server.Endpoints.RateLimits.OpenIDConnectToken)
-			assert.Equal(t, tc.expected.ResetPasswordStart, tc.config.Server.Endpoints.RateLimits.ResetPasswordStart)
-			assert.Equal(t, tc.expected.ResetPasswordFinish, tc.config.Server.Endpoints.RateLimits.ResetPasswordFinish)
-			assert.Equal(t, tc.expected.SecondFactorTOTP, tc.config.Server.Endpoints.RateLimits.SecondFactorTOTP)
-			assert.Equal(t, tc.expected.SecondFactorDuo, tc.config.Server.Endpoints.RateLimits.SecondFactorDuo)
-			assert.Equal(t, tc.expected.SessionElevationStart, tc.config.Server.Endpoints.RateLimits.SessionElevationStart)
-			assert.Equal(t, tc.expected.SessionElevationFinish, tc.config.Server.Endpoints.RateLimits.SessionElevationFinish)
 		})
 	}
 }

internal/middlewares/rate_limiting.go

@@ -7,7 +7,6 @@ package middlewares
 import (
 	"context"
 	"math"
-	"net/http"
 	"slices"
 	"strconv"
 	"sync"
@@ -205,7 +204,7 @@ func WithRateLimitCollector(collector *GarbageCollector) RateLimiterOption {
 func HandlerRateLimitAPI(ctx *AutheliaCtx, retryAfter time.Duration) {
 	ctx.SetStatusCode(fasthttp.StatusTooManyRequests)
 
-	ctx.Response.Header.SetBytesK(headerRetryAfter, time.Now().UTC().Add(retryAfter).Format(http.TimeFormat))
+	ctx.Response.Header.SetBytesK(headerRetryAfter, formatRetryAfter(retryAfter))
 	ctx.Response.Header.SetBytesKV(headerCacheControl, headerValueNoStore)
 	ctx.Response.Header.SetBytesKV(headerPragma, headerValueNoCache)
 
@@ -216,7 +215,7 @@ func HandlerRateLimitAPI(ctx *AutheliaCtx, retryAfter time.Duration) {
 func HandlerRateLimitOpenIDConnect(ctx *AutheliaCtx, retryAfter time.Duration) {
 	ctx.SetStatusCode(fasthttp.StatusTooManyRequests)
 
-	ctx.Response.Header.SetBytesK(headerRetryAfter, strconv.Itoa(int(math.Ceil(retryAfter.Seconds()))))
+	ctx.Response.Header.SetBytesK(headerRetryAfter, formatRetryAfter(retryAfter))
 	ctx.Response.Header.SetBytesKV(headerCacheControl, headerValueNoStore)
 	ctx.Response.Header.SetBytesKV(headerPragma, headerValueNoCache)
 	ctx.Response.Header.SetBytesKV(headerContentType, contentTypeApplicationJSON)
@@ -224,6 +223,10 @@ func HandlerRateLimitOpenIDConnect(ctx *AutheliaCtx, retryAfter time.Duration) {
 	ctx.Response.SetBodyRaw(bodyOpenIDConnectRateLimitExceeded)
 }
 
+func formatRetryAfter(retryAfter time.Duration) string {
+	return strconv.Itoa(int(math.Ceil(retryAfter.Seconds())))
+}
+
 func newRateLimiterHandler(next RequestHandler, buckets []RateLimitBucket, handler RateLimitRequestHandler, exemptStatusCodes []int) RequestHandler {
 	isRateLimitExempt := newIsRateLimitExempt(exemptStatusCodes)
 

internal/middlewares/rate_limiting_test.go

@@ -838,14 +838,46 @@ func TestNewIsRateLimitExempt(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestHandlerRateLimitAPI(t *testing.T) {
-	ctx := newTestAutheliaCtx("192.168.1.1")
+	testCases := []struct {
+		name       string
+		retryAfter time.Duration
+		expected   string
+	}{
+		{
+			"ShouldRenderWholeSeconds",
+			time.Second * 30,
+			"30",
+		},
+		{
+			"ShouldRoundPartialSecondsUp",
+			time.Millisecond * 1500,
+			"2",
+		},
+		{
+			"ShouldRenderSubSecondAsOne",
+			time.Millisecond,
+			"1",
+		},
+		{
+			"ShouldRenderZero",
+			0,
+			"0",
+		},
+	}
 
-	HandlerRateLimitAPI(ctx, 30*time.Second)
+	for _, tc := range testCases {
+		t.Run(tc.name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			ctx := newTestAutheliaCtx("192.168.1.1")
 
-	body := string(ctx.Response.Body())
+			HandlerRateLimitAPI(ctx, tc.retryAfter)
-	assert.Contains(t, body, "Too Many Requests")
+
-	assert.Equal(t, fasthttp.StatusTooManyRequests, ctx.Response.StatusCode())
+			assert.Equal(t, fasthttp.StatusTooManyRequests, ctx.Response.StatusCode())
-	assert.NotEmpty(t, ctx.Response.Header.Peek(fasthttp.HeaderRetryAfter))
+			assert.Equal(t, tc.expected, string(ctx.Response.Header.Peek(fasthttp.HeaderRetryAfter)))
+			assert.Equal(t, HeaderCacheControlNotStore, string(ctx.Response.Header.Peek(fasthttp.HeaderCacheControl)))
+			assert.Equal(t, HeaderPragmaNoCache, string(ctx.Response.Header.Peek(fasthttp.HeaderPragma)))
+			assert.JSONEq(t, `{"status":"KO","message":"Too Many Requests"}`, string(ctx.Response.Body()))
+		})
+	}
 }
 
 func TestHandlerRateLimitOpenIDConnect(t *testing.T) {

internal/server/locales/en/portal.json

@@ -103,12 +103,16 @@
 	"Time-based One-Time Password": "Time-based One-Time Password",
 	"Toggle password visibility": "Toggle password visibility",
 	"Touch the token of your security key": "Touch the token of your security key",
+	"Try again in {{count}} seconds_one": "Try again in {{count}} second",
+	"Try again in {{count}} seconds_other": "Try again in {{count}} seconds",
 	"Use OpenID to verify your identity": "Use OpenID to verify your identity",
 	"Username": "Username",
 	"Username is required": "Username is required",
 	"Warning": "Warning",
 	"You cancelled the assertion request": "You cancelled the assertion request",
 	"You have made too many requests": "You have made too many requests",
+	"You have made too many requests, try again in {{count}} seconds_one": "You have made too many requests, try again in {{count}} second",
+	"You have made too many requests, try again in {{count}} seconds_other": "You have made too many requests, try again in {{count}} seconds",
 	"You must view and accept the Privacy Policy before using {{authelia}}.": "You must view and accept the \u003cpolicy\u003ePrivacy Policy\u003c/policy\u003e before using {{authelia}}",
 	"You're being signed out and redirected": "You're being signed out and redirected",
 	"Your browser does not support the WebAuthn protocol": "Your browser does not support the WebAuthn protocol",

web/src/components/RateLimitCountdown.test.tsx

@@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: 2026 Authelia
+//
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+
+import { render, screen } from "@testing-library/react";
+
+import RateLimitCountdown from "@components/RateLimitCountdown";
+
+const mocks = vi.hoisted(() => ({
+    translate: vi.fn((key: string, options?: { count?: number }) => `${key}:${options?.count}`),
+}));
+
+vi.mock("react-i18next", () => ({
+    useTranslation: () => ({ t: mocks.translate }),
+}));
+
+it("renders only an empty status region when there are no seconds remaining", () => {
+    render(<RateLimitCountdown secondsRemaining={0} />);
+
+    expect(screen.getByRole("status")).toBeEmptyDOMElement();
+    expect(document.getElementById("rate-limit-countdown")).not.toBeInTheDocument();
+});
+
+it("renders the seconds remaining", () => {
+    render(<RateLimitCountdown secondsRemaining={42} />);
+
+    expect(document.getElementById("rate-limit-countdown")).toHaveTextContent("Try again in {{count}} seconds:42");
+    expect(mocks.translate).toHaveBeenCalledWith("Try again in {{count}} seconds", { count: 42 });
+});
+
+it("announces the seconds remaining once when the countdown starts", () => {
+    const { rerender } = render(<RateLimitCountdown secondsRemaining={0} />);
+
+    rerender(<RateLimitCountdown secondsRemaining={30} />);
+
+    expect(screen.getByRole("status")).toHaveTextContent("Try again in {{count}} seconds:30");
+
+    rerender(<RateLimitCountdown secondsRemaining={29} />);
+
+    expect(screen.getByRole("status")).toHaveTextContent("Try again in {{count}} seconds:30");
+    expect(document.getElementById("rate-limit-countdown")).toHaveTextContent("Try again in {{count}} seconds:29");
+});
+
+it("announces again when the countdown restarts", () => {
+    const { rerender } = render(<RateLimitCountdown secondsRemaining={10} />);
+
+    rerender(<RateLimitCountdown secondsRemaining={5} />);
+    rerender(<RateLimitCountdown secondsRemaining={20} />);
+
+    expect(screen.getByRole("status")).toHaveTextContent("Try again in {{count}} seconds:20");
+});
+
+it("clears the announcement when the countdown ends", () => {
+    const { rerender } = render(<RateLimitCountdown secondsRemaining={1} />);
+
+    rerender(<RateLimitCountdown secondsRemaining={0} />);
+
+    expect(screen.getByRole("status")).toBeEmptyDOMElement();
+    expect(document.getElementById("rate-limit-countdown")).not.toBeInTheDocument();
+});

web/src/components/RateLimitCountdown.tsx

@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: 2026 Authelia
+//
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+
+import { Fragment, useState } from "react";
+
+import { useTranslation } from "react-i18next";
+
+export interface Props {
+    secondsRemaining: number;
+}
+
+const RateLimitCountdown = function (props: Props) {
+    const { t: translate } = useTranslation("portal");
+    const [previous, setPrevious] = useState(props.secondsRemaining);
+    const [announced, setAnnounced] = useState(props.secondsRemaining);
+
+    if (props.secondsRemaining !== previous) {
+        setPrevious(props.secondsRemaining);
+
+        if (props.secondsRemaining > previous || props.secondsRemaining <= 0) {
+            setAnnounced(props.secondsRemaining);
+        }
+    }
+
+    return (
+        <Fragment>
+            <span role="status" className="sr-only">
+                {announced > 0 ? translate("Try again in {{count}} seconds", { count: announced }) : null}
+            </span>
+            {props.secondsRemaining > 0 ? (
+                <p id="rate-limit-countdown" className="w-full text-center text-sm text-muted-foreground">
+                    {translate("Try again in {{count}} seconds", { count: props.secondsRemaining })}
+                </p>
+            ) : null}
+        </Fragment>
+    );
+};
+
+export default RateLimitCountdown;

web/src/hooks/RateLimit.test.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,213 @@
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: 2026 Authelia
+//
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+
+import { act, renderHook } from "@testing-library/react";
+
+import { useRateLimit } from "@hooks/RateLimit";
+
+beforeEach(() => {
+    vi.useFakeTimers();
+});
+
+afterEach(() => {
+    vi.useRealTimers();
+});
+
+it("is not limited initially", () => {
+    const { result } = renderHook(() => useRateLimit());
+
+    expect(result.current.limited).toBe(false);
+    expect(result.current.secondsRemaining).toBe(0);
+});
+
+it("counts down the seconds remaining", () => {
+    const { result } = renderHook(() => useRateLimit());
+
+    act(() => result.current.trigger(3));
+
+    expect(result.current.secondsRemaining).toBe(3);
+
+    act(() => {
+        vi.advanceTimersByTime(1000);
+    });
+
+    expect(result.current.secondsRemaining).toBe(2);
+
+    act(() => {
+        vi.advanceTimersByTime(1000);
+    });
+
+    expect(result.current.secondsRemaining).toBe(1);
+
+    act(() => {
+        vi.advanceTimersByTime(1000);
+    });
+
+    expect(result.current.secondsRemaining).toBe(0);
+    expect(result.current.limited).toBe(false);
+});
+
+it("rounds a partial second up", () => {
+    const { result } = renderHook(() => useRateLimit());
+
+    act(() => result.current.trigger(1.5));
+
+    expect(result.current.secondsRemaining).toBe(2);
+
+    act(() => {
+        vi.advanceTimersByTime(1000);
+    });
+
+    expect(result.current.secondsRemaining).toBe(1);
+    expect(result.current.limited).toBe(true);
+});
+
+it("is limited until the retry period elapses", () => {
+    const onExpire = vi.fn();
+    const { result } = renderHook(() => useRateLimit(onExpire));
+
+    act(() => result.current.trigger(30));
+
+    expect(result.current.limited).toBe(true);
+
+    act(() => {
+        vi.advanceTimersByTime(29999);
+    });
+
+    expect(result.current.limited).toBe(true);
+    expect(onExpire).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
+
+    act(() => {
+        vi.advanceTimersByTime(1);
+    });
+
+    expect(result.current.limited).toBe(false);
+    expect(onExpire).toHaveBeenCalledTimes(1);
+});
+
+it("calls onExpire once when the countdown and the retry period end together", () => {
+    const onExpire = vi.fn();
+    const { result } = renderHook(() => useRateLimit(onExpire));
+
+    act(() => result.current.trigger(2));
+
+    act(() => {
+        vi.advanceTimersByTime(10000);
+    });
+
+    expect(result.current.limited).toBe(false);
+    expect(onExpire).toHaveBeenCalledTimes(1);
+});
+
+it("stays limited for a retry period longer than the maximum timeout delay", () => {
+    const onExpire = vi.fn();
+    const { result } = renderHook(() => useRateLimit(onExpire));
+    const retryAfter = 30 * 24 * 60 * 60;
+
+    act(() => result.current.trigger(retryAfter));
+
+    act(() => {
+        vi.advanceTimersByTime(1000);
+    });
+
+    expect(result.current.limited).toBe(true);
+    expect(result.current.secondsRemaining).toBe(retryAfter - 1);
+    expect(onExpire).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
+
+    vi.setSystemTime(Date.now() + (retryAfter - 3) * 1000);
+
+    act(() => {
+        vi.advanceTimersByTime(1000);
+    });
+
+    expect(result.current.limited).toBe(true);
+    expect(result.current.secondsRemaining).toBe(1);
+    expect(onExpire).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
+
+    act(() => {
+        vi.advanceTimersByTime(1000);
+    });
+
+    expect(result.current.limited).toBe(false);
+    expect(onExpire).toHaveBeenCalledTimes(1);
+});
+
+it("restarts the retry period when triggered again", () => {
+    const onExpire = vi.fn();
+    const { result } = renderHook(() => useRateLimit(onExpire));
+
+    act(() => result.current.trigger(10));
+
+    act(() => {
+        vi.advanceTimersByTime(5000);
+    });
+
+    act(() => result.current.trigger(10));
+
+    act(() => {
+        vi.advanceTimersByTime(5000);
+    });
+
+    expect(result.current.limited).toBe(true);
+    expect(onExpire).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
+
+    act(() => {
+        vi.advanceTimersByTime(5000);
+    });
+
+    expect(result.current.limited).toBe(false);
+    expect(onExpire).toHaveBeenCalledTimes(1);
+});
+
+it("clears the limit without calling onExpire", () => {
+    const onExpire = vi.fn();
+    const { result } = renderHook(() => useRateLimit(onExpire));
+
+    act(() => result.current.trigger(30));
+    act(() => result.current.clear());
+
+    expect(result.current.limited).toBe(false);
+    expect(result.current.secondsRemaining).toBe(0);
+
+    act(() => {
+        vi.advanceTimersByTime(30000);
+    });
+
+    expect(onExpire).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
+});
+
+it("calls the latest onExpire", () => {
+    const first = vi.fn();
+    const second = vi.fn();
+    const { rerender, result } = renderHook(({ onExpire }) => useRateLimit(onExpire), {
+        initialProps: { onExpire: first },
+    });
+
+    act(() => result.current.trigger(10));
+
+    rerender({ onExpire: second });
+
+    act(() => {
+        vi.advanceTimersByTime(10000);
+    });
+
+    expect(first).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
+    expect(second).toHaveBeenCalledTimes(1);
+});
+
+it("clears the timer on unmount", () => {
+    const onExpire = vi.fn();
+    const { result, unmount } = renderHook(() => useRateLimit(onExpire));
+
+    act(() => result.current.trigger(30));
+
+    unmount();
+
+    act(() => {
+        vi.advanceTimersByTime(30000);
+    });
+
+    expect(onExpire).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
+    expect(vi.getTimerCount()).toBe(0);
+});

web/src/hooks/RateLimit.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,72 @@
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: 2026 Authelia
+//
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+
+import { useCallback, useEffect, useEffectEvent, useState } from "react";
+
+const MaximumTimeoutDelay = 2_147_483_647;
+
+function secondsUntil(deadline: number) {
+    return Math.max(0, Math.ceil((deadline - Date.now()) / 1000));
+}
+
+export const useRateLimit = (onExpire?: () => void) => {
+    const [deadline, setDeadline] = useState<null | number>(null);
+    const [secondsRemaining, setSecondsRemaining] = useState(0);
+
+    const handleExpire = useEffectEvent(() => {
+        setDeadline(null);
+        setSecondsRemaining(0);
+        onExpire?.();
+    });
+
+    useEffect(() => {
+        if (deadline === null) return;
+
+        let interval: null | ReturnType<typeof setInterval> = null;
+        let timeout: null | ReturnType<typeof setTimeout> = null;
+
+        const stop = () => {
+            if (interval !== null) clearInterval(interval);
+            if (timeout !== null) clearTimeout(timeout);
+
+            interval = null;
+            timeout = null;
+        };
+
+        const expire = () => {
+            stop();
+            handleExpire();
+        };
+
+        interval = setInterval(() => {
+            const seconds = secondsUntil(deadline);
+
+            if (seconds === 0) {
+                expire();
+            } else {
+                setSecondsRemaining(seconds);
+            }
+        }, 1000);
+
+        const delay = Math.max(0, deadline - Date.now());
+
+        if (delay <= MaximumTimeoutDelay) timeout = setTimeout(expire, delay);
+
+        return stop;
+    }, [deadline]);
+
+    const clear = useCallback(() => {
+        setDeadline(null);
+        setSecondsRemaining(0);
+    }, []);
+
+    const trigger = useCallback((retryAfter: number) => {
+        setDeadline(Date.now() + retryAfter * 1000);
+        setSecondsRemaining(Math.ceil(retryAfter));
+    }, []);
+
+    return { clear, limited: deadline !== null, secondsRemaining, trigger };
+};
+
+export default useRateLimit;

web/src/index.tsx

@@ -9,6 +9,9 @@ import { createRoot } from "react-dom/client";
 import "@root/index.css";
 import App from "@root/App";
 import "@i18n/index";
+import { registerRateLimitInterceptor } from "@services/RateLimit";
+
+registerRateLimitInterceptor();
 
 createRoot(document.getElementById("root")!).render(
     <StrictMode>

web/src/services/Api.test.ts

@@ -7,58 +7,11 @@ import { AxiosResponse } from "axios";
 import {
     hasServiceError,
     toData,
-    toDataRateLimited,
     validateStatusAuthentication,
     validateStatusOneTimeCode,
-    validateStatusTooManyRequests,
     validateStatusWebAuthnCreation,
 } from "@services/Api";
 
-it("throws for missing retry-after header", () => {
-    const resp = { data: { status: "KO" }, headers: {}, status: 429 } as any;
-    expect(() => toDataRateLimited(resp)).toThrow("Header Retry-After is missing");
-});
-
-it("handles numeric retry-after", () => {
-    const resp = { data: { status: "KO" }, headers: { "retry-after": "30" }, status: 429 } as any;
-    const result = toDataRateLimited(resp);
-    expect(result?.limited).toBe(true);
-    expect(result?.retryAfter).toBe(30);
-});
-
-it("handles date retry-after", () => {
-    const future = new Date(Date.now() + 60000).toUTCString();
-    const resp = { data: { status: "KO" }, headers: { "retry-after": future }, status: 429 } as any;
-    const result = toDataRateLimited(resp);
-    expect(result?.limited).toBe(true);
-    expect(result?.retryAfter).toBeGreaterThan(50);
-});
-
-it("throws for invalid date retry-after", () => {
-    const resp = { data: { status: "KO" }, headers: { "retry-after": "invalid-date" }, status: 429 } as any;
-    expect(() => toDataRateLimited(resp)).toThrow("Header Retry-After has an invalid date value");
-});
-
-it("returns data for ok status", () => {
-    const resp = { data: { data: "test", status: "OK" }, status: 200 } as AxiosResponse;
-    expect(toDataRateLimited(resp)).toEqual({ data: "test", limited: false, retryAfter: 0 });
-});
-
-it("returns limited for ko status with 429", () => {
-    const resp = { data: { status: "KO" }, headers: { "retry-after": "30" }, status: 429 } as any;
-    expect(toDataRateLimited(resp)).toEqual({ limited: true, retryAfter: 30 });
-});
-
-it("returns limited for 429 status", () => {
-    const resp = { data: { status: "OTHER" }, headers: { "retry-after": "30" }, status: 429 } as any;
-    expect(toDataRateLimited(resp)).toEqual({ limited: true, retryAfter: 30 });
-});
-
-it("returns undefined for no data", () => {
-    const resp = { data: null, status: 200 } as AxiosResponse;
-    expect(toDataRateLimited(resp)).toBeUndefined();
-});
-
 it("reports no error for ok response", () => {
     const resp = { data: { data: "test", status: "OK" }, status: 200 } as AxiosResponse;
     expect(hasServiceError(resp)).toEqual({ errored: false, message: null });
@@ -69,14 +22,6 @@ it("reports error for ko response", () => {
     expect(hasServiceError(resp)).toEqual({ errored: true, message: "bad request" });
 });
 
-it("validates status for too many requests", () => {
-    expect(validateStatusTooManyRequests(200)).toBe(true);
-    expect(validateStatusTooManyRequests(299)).toBe(true);
-    expect(validateStatusTooManyRequests(429)).toBe(true);
-    expect(validateStatusTooManyRequests(400)).toBe(false);
-    expect(validateStatusTooManyRequests(500)).toBe(false);
-});
-
 it("validates status for authentication", () => {
     expect(validateStatusAuthentication(200)).toBe(true);
     expect(validateStatusAuthentication(401)).toBe(true);
@@ -123,20 +68,3 @@ describe("toData", () => {
         expect(toData(resp)).toBeUndefined();
     });
 });
-
-describe("toDataRateLimited", () => {
-    it("reports a failure that is not rate limited", () => {
-        const resp = { data: { status: "KO" }, headers: {}, status: 400 } as any;
-        expect(toDataRateLimited(resp)).toEqual({ limited: false, retryAfter: 0 });
-    });
-
-    it("returns undefined without data", () => {
-        const resp = { data: undefined, headers: {}, status: 200 } as any;
-        expect(toDataRateLimited(resp)).toBeUndefined();
-    });
-
-    it("returns undefined for an unknown status on a non 429 response", () => {
-        const resp = { data: { status: "MAYBE" }, headers: {}, status: 200 } as any;
-        expect(toDataRateLimited(resp)).toBeUndefined();
-    });
-});

web/src/services/Api.ts

@@ -59,11 +59,6 @@ export interface ErrorResponse {
     message: string;
 }
 
-export interface ErrorRateLimitResponse extends ErrorResponse {
-    limited: boolean;
-    retryAfter: number;
-}
-
 export interface Response<T> extends OKResponse {
     data: T;
 }
@@ -97,54 +92,6 @@ export function toData<T>(resp: AxiosResponse<ServiceResponse<T>>): T | undefine
     return undefined;
 }
 
-export type RateLimitedData<T> = {
-    data?: T;
-    limited: boolean;
-    retryAfter: number;
-};
-
-function getRetryAfter(resp: AxiosResponse): number {
-    if (resp.status !== 429) {
-        return 0;
-    }
-
-    const valueRetryAfter = resp.headers["retry-after"];
-    if (valueRetryAfter) {
-        if (/^\d+$/.test(valueRetryAfter)) {
-            const retryAfter = Number.parseFloat(valueRetryAfter);
-
-            if (Number.isNaN(retryAfter)) {
-                throw new TypeError("Header Retry-After has an invalid number value");
-            }
-
-            return retryAfter;
-        } else {
-            const date = new Date(valueRetryAfter);
-            if (Number.isNaN(date.getTime())) {
-                throw new TypeError("Header Retry-After has an invalid date value");
-            }
-
-            return Math.max(0, (date.getTime() - Date.now()) / 1000);
-        }
-    }
-
-    throw new Error("Header Retry-After is missing");
-}
-
-export function toDataRateLimited<T>(resp: AxiosResponse<ServiceResponse<T>>): RateLimitedData<T> | undefined {
-    if (resp.data && "status" in resp.data) {
-        if (resp.data["status"] === "OK") {
-            return { data: resp.data.data, limited: false, retryAfter: 0 };
-        } else if (resp.data["status"] === "KO") {
-            return { limited: resp.status === 429, retryAfter: getRetryAfter(resp) };
-        } else if (resp.status === 429) {
-            return { limited: true, retryAfter: getRetryAfter(resp) };
-        }
-    }
-
-    return undefined;
-}
-
 function hasError(err: ErrorResponse | undefined) {
     if (err?.status === "KO") {
         return { errored: true, message: err.message };
@@ -159,10 +106,6 @@ export function hasServiceError<T>(resp: AxiosResponse<ServiceResponse<T>>) {
     return hasError(errResp);
 }
 
-export function validateStatusTooManyRequests(status: number) {
-    return (status >= 200 && status < 300) || status === 429;
-}
-
 export function validateStatusAuthentication(status: number) {
     return (status >= 200 && status < 300) || status === 401 || status === 403;
 }

web/src/services/Client.test.ts

@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
 
 import axios from "axios";
 
-import { hasServiceError, toData, toDataRateLimited } from "@services/Api";
+import { hasServiceError, toData } from "@services/Api";
 import * as Client from "@services/Client";
 
 vi.mock("axios");
@@ -30,26 +30,6 @@ it("handles successful post with optional response", async () => {
     expect(result).toBe("test");
 });
 
-it("handles successful rate limited post", async () => {
-    const mockRes = { data: { data: "test", status: "OK" }, status: 200 };
-    (axios.post as any).mockResolvedValue(mockRes);
-    (hasServiceError as any).mockReturnValue({ errored: false });
-    (toDataRateLimited as any).mockReturnValue({ data: "test", limited: false, retryAfter: 0 });
-
-    const result = await Client.PostWithOptionalResponseRateLimited("/path", {});
-    expect(result).toEqual({ data: "test", limited: false, retryAfter: 0 });
-});
-
-it("handles rate limited post", async () => {
-    const mockRes = { data: { status: "KO" }, headers: { "retry-after": "30" }, status: 429 };
-    (axios.post as any).mockResolvedValue(mockRes);
-    (hasServiceError as any).mockReturnValue({ errored: true });
-    (toDataRateLimited as any).mockReturnValue({ limited: true, retryAfter: 30 });
-
-    const result = await Client.PostWithOptionalResponseRateLimited("/path", {});
-    expect(result).toEqual({ limited: true, retryAfter: 30 });
-});
-
 it("throws on post error", async () => {
     const mockRes = { data: { message: "error", status: "KO" }, status: 400 };
     (axios.post as any).mockResolvedValue(mockRes);
@@ -60,16 +40,6 @@ it("throws on post error", async () => {
     );
 });
 
-it("throws on rate limited post error", async () => {
-    const mockRes = { data: { message: "error", status: "KO" }, status: 400 };
-    (axios.post as any).mockResolvedValue(mockRes);
-    (hasServiceError as any).mockReturnValue({ errored: true, message: "error" });
-
-    await expect(Client.PostWithOptionalResponseRateLimited("/path", {})).rejects.toThrow(
-        "Failed POST to /path. Code: 400. Message: error",
-    );
-});
-
 it("throws on post with no data", async () => {
     const mockRes = { data: { status: "OK" }, status: 200 };
     (axios.post as any).mockResolvedValue(mockRes);
@@ -211,7 +181,6 @@ it("forwards the abort signal to axios on every helper", async () => {
     (axios.delete as any).mockResolvedValue(mockRes);
     (hasServiceError as any).mockReturnValue({ errored: false });
     (toData as any).mockReturnValue("test");
-    (toDataRateLimited as any).mockReturnValue({ data: "test", limited: false, retryAfter: 0 });
 
     await Client.Get("/path", signal);
     expect(axios.get).toHaveBeenLastCalledWith("/path", { signal });
@@ -225,9 +194,6 @@ it("forwards the abort signal to axios on every helper", async () => {
     await Client.PostWithOptionalResponse("/path", { body: 1 }, signal);
     expect(axios.post).toHaveBeenLastCalledWith("/path", { body: 1 }, { signal });
 
-    await Client.PostWithOptionalResponseRateLimited("/path", { body: 1 }, signal);
-    expect(axios.post).toHaveBeenLastCalledWith("/path", { body: 1 }, expect.objectContaining({ signal }));
-
     await Client.Put("/path", { body: 1 }, signal);
     expect(axios.put).toHaveBeenLastCalledWith("/path", { body: 1 }, { signal });
 

web/src/services/Client.ts

@@ -4,14 +4,7 @@
 
 import axios from "axios";
 
-import {
+import { ServiceResponse, hasServiceError, toData } from "@services/Api";
-    RateLimitedData,
-    ServiceResponse,
-    hasServiceError,
-    toData,
-    toDataRateLimited,
-    validateStatusTooManyRequests,
-} from "@services/Api";
 
 export async function PutWithOptionalResponse<T = undefined>(
     path: string,
@@ -41,27 +34,6 @@ export async function PostWithOptionalResponse<T = undefined>(
     return toData<T>(res);
 }
 
-export async function PostWithOptionalResponseRateLimited<T = undefined>(
-    path: string,
-    body?: any,
-    signal?: AbortSignal,
-): Promise<RateLimitedData<T> | undefined> {
-    const res = await axios.post<ServiceResponse<T>>(path, body, {
-        signal,
-        validateStatus: validateStatusTooManyRequests,
-    });
-
-    if (res.status !== 200 || hasServiceError(res).errored) {
-        if (res.status === 429) {
-            return toDataRateLimited<T>(res);
-        }
-
-        throw new Error(`Failed POST to ${path}. Code: ${res.status}. Message: ${hasServiceError(res).message}`);
-    }
-
-    return toDataRateLimited<T>(res);
-}
-
 export async function DeleteWithOptionalResponse<T = undefined>(
     path: string,
     body?: any,

web/src/services/OneTimePassword.test.ts

@@ -2,11 +2,7 @@
 //
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
-import {
+import { DeleteWithOptionalResponse, PostWithOptionalResponse } from "@services/Client";
-    DeleteWithOptionalResponse,
-    PostWithOptionalResponse,
-    PostWithOptionalResponseRateLimited,
-} from "@services/Client";
 import { completeTOTPRegister, completeTOTPSignIn, stopTOTPRegister } from "@services/OneTimePassword";
 
 vi.mock("@services/Api", () => ({
@@ -16,13 +12,12 @@ vi.mock("@services/Api", () => ({
 vi.mock("@services/Client", () => ({
     DeleteWithOptionalResponse: vi.fn(),
     PostWithOptionalResponse: vi.fn(),
-    PostWithOptionalResponseRateLimited: vi.fn(),
 }));
 
 it("completes totp sign in", async () => {
-    (PostWithOptionalResponseRateLimited as any).mockResolvedValue("response");
+    (PostWithOptionalResponse as any).mockResolvedValue("response");
     const result = await completeTOTPSignIn("123456", "url", "flow", "flowtype", "sub", "code");
-    expect(PostWithOptionalResponseRateLimited).toHaveBeenCalledWith("/totp/signin", {
+    expect(PostWithOptionalResponse).toHaveBeenCalledWith("/totp/signin", {
         flow: "flowtype",
         flowID: "flow",
         subflow: "sub",

web/src/services/OneTimePassword.ts

@@ -3,11 +3,7 @@
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
 import { CompleteTOTPSignInPath, TOTPRegistrationPath } from "@services/Api";
-import {
+import { DeleteWithOptionalResponse, PostWithOptionalResponse } from "@services/Client";
-    DeleteWithOptionalResponse,
-    PostWithOptionalResponse,
-    PostWithOptionalResponseRateLimited,
-} from "@services/Client";
 import { SignInResponse } from "@services/SignIn";
 
 interface CompleteTOTPSignInBody {
@@ -36,7 +32,7 @@ export function completeTOTPSignIn(
         userCode,
     };
 
-    return PostWithOptionalResponseRateLimited<SignInResponse>(CompleteTOTPSignInPath, body);
+    return PostWithOptionalResponse<SignInResponse>(CompleteTOTPSignInPath, body);
 }
 
 export function completeTOTPRegister(passcode: string) {

web/src/services/Password.test.ts

@@ -61,7 +61,7 @@ it("posts first factor reauthenticate without response", async () => {
 });
 
 it("posts second factor with response", async () => {
-    const mockResponse = { token: "abc" };
+    const mockResponse = { redirect: "abc" };
     (PostWithOptionalResponse as any).mockResolvedValue(mockResponse);
     const result = await postSecondFactor("pass", "url", "flow", "flowtype", "sub");
     expect(PostWithOptionalResponse).toHaveBeenCalledWith("/password/signin", {
@@ -77,5 +77,5 @@ it("posts second factor with response", async () => {
 it("posts second factor without response", async () => {
     (PostWithOptionalResponse as any).mockResolvedValue(undefined);
     const result = await postSecondFactor("pass");
-    expect(result).toEqual({});
+    expect(result).toBeUndefined();
 });

web/src/services/Password.ts

@@ -101,6 +101,5 @@ export async function postSecondFactor(
         targetURL,
     };
 
-    const res = await PostWithOptionalResponse<SignInResponse>(CompletePasswordSignInPath, data);
+    return PostWithOptionalResponse<SignInResponse>(CompletePasswordSignInPath, data);
-    return res ?? ({} as SignInResponse);
 }

web/src/services/PushNotification.test.ts

@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@
 //
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
-import { Get, PostWithOptionalResponse, PostWithOptionalResponseRateLimited } from "@services/Client";
+import { Get, PostWithOptionalResponse } from "@services/Client";
 import {
     completeDuoDeviceSelectionProcess,
     completePushNotificationSignIn,
@@ -17,13 +17,12 @@ vi.mock("@services/Api", () => ({
 vi.mock("@services/Client", () => ({
     Get: vi.fn(),
     PostWithOptionalResponse: vi.fn(),
-    PostWithOptionalResponseRateLimited: vi.fn(),
 }));
 
 it("completes push notification sign in", async () => {
-    (PostWithOptionalResponseRateLimited as any).mockResolvedValue("response");
+    (PostWithOptionalResponse as any).mockResolvedValue("response");
     const result = await completePushNotificationSignIn("url", "flow", "flowtype", "sub", "code");
-    expect(PostWithOptionalResponseRateLimited).toHaveBeenCalledWith(
+    expect(PostWithOptionalResponse).toHaveBeenCalledWith(
         "/duo/signin",
         {
             flow: "flowtype",
@@ -69,12 +68,12 @@ it("gets preferred duo device", async () => {
 it("forwards the abort signal when provided", async () => {
     const { getPreferredDuoDevice } = await import("@services/PushNotification");
     const signal = new AbortController().signal;
-    (PostWithOptionalResponseRateLimited as any).mockResolvedValue("response");
+    (PostWithOptionalResponse as any).mockResolvedValue("response");
     (PostWithOptionalResponse as any).mockResolvedValue("response");
     (Get as any).mockResolvedValue("response");
 
     await completePushNotificationSignIn("url", "flow", "flowtype", "sub", "code", signal);
-    expect(PostWithOptionalResponseRateLimited).toHaveBeenLastCalledWith("/duo/signin", expect.any(Object), signal);
+    expect(PostWithOptionalResponse).toHaveBeenLastCalledWith("/duo/signin", expect.any(Object), signal);
 
     await initiateDuoDeviceSelectionProcess(signal);
     expect(Get).toHaveBeenLastCalledWith("/duo/devices", signal);

web/src/services/PushNotification.ts

@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ import {
     CompletePushNotificationSignInPath,
     InitiateDuoDeviceSelectionPath,
 } from "@services/Api";
-import { Get, PostWithOptionalResponse, PostWithOptionalResponseRateLimited } from "@services/Client";
+import { Get, PostWithOptionalResponse } from "@services/Client";
 
 interface CompletePushSignInBody {
     targetURL?: string;
@@ -33,7 +33,7 @@ export function completePushNotificationSignIn(
         userCode,
     };
 
-    return PostWithOptionalResponseRateLimited<DuoSignInResponse>(CompletePushNotificationSignInPath, body, signal);
+    return PostWithOptionalResponse<DuoSignInResponse>(CompletePushNotificationSignInPath, body, signal);
 }
 
 export interface DuoSignInResponse {

web/src/services/RateLimit.test.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,151 @@
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: 2026 Authelia
+//
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+
+import axios, { AxiosAdapter, AxiosError, AxiosResponse, InternalAxiosRequestConfig } from "axios";
+
+import {
+    DefaultRetryAfterSeconds,
+    MaximumRetryAfterSeconds,
+    MinimumRetryAfterSeconds,
+    RateLimitedError,
+    getRetryAfter,
+    registerRateLimitInterceptor,
+} from "@services/RateLimit";
+
+function newResponse(status: number, headers: Record<string, string> = {}): AxiosResponse {
+    return {
+        config: { headers: {} } as InternalAxiosRequestConfig,
+        data: { message: "Too Many Requests", status: "KO" },
+        headers,
+        status,
+        statusText: "",
+    };
+}
+
+function newInstance(status: number, headers: Record<string, string> = {}, validateStatus?: (s: number) => boolean) {
+    const adapter: AxiosAdapter = async (config) => {
+        const resp = { ...newResponse(status, headers), config };
+
+        if (config.validateStatus && !config.validateStatus(status)) {
+            throw new AxiosError("Request failed", undefined, config, undefined, resp);
+        }
+
+        return resp;
+    };
+
+    const instance = validateStatus ? axios.create({ adapter, validateStatus }) : axios.create({ adapter });
+
+    registerRateLimitInterceptor(instance);
+
+    return instance;
+}
+
+describe("getRetryAfter", () => {
+    beforeEach(() => {
+        vi.useFakeTimers();
+        vi.setSystemTime(new Date("2026-01-01T00:00:00.000Z"));
+    });
+
+    afterEach(() => {
+        vi.useRealTimers();
+    });
+
+    it.each([
+        { expected: 30, headers: { "retry-after": "30" }, name: "delta seconds" },
+        { expected: MinimumRetryAfterSeconds, headers: { "retry-after": "0" }, name: "zero delta seconds" },
+        { expected: 60, headers: { "retry-after": "Thu, 01 Jan 2026 00:01:00 GMT" }, name: "http date" },
+        {
+            expected: MinimumRetryAfterSeconds,
+            headers: { "retry-after": "Thu, 01 Jan 2026 00:00:00 GMT" },
+            name: "http date now",
+        },
+        {
+            expected: MinimumRetryAfterSeconds,
+            headers: { "retry-after": "Wed, 31 Dec 2025 23:59:00 GMT" },
+            name: "http date in the past",
+        },
+        {
+            expected: MaximumRetryAfterSeconds,
+            headers: { "retry-after": String(MaximumRetryAfterSeconds) },
+            name: "maximum delta seconds",
+        },
+        {
+            expected: MaximumRetryAfterSeconds,
+            headers: { "retry-after": String(MaximumRetryAfterSeconds + 1) },
+            name: "delta seconds above the maximum",
+        },
+        {
+            expected: DefaultRetryAfterSeconds,
+            headers: { "retry-after": "9".repeat(400) },
+            name: "delta seconds too large to represent",
+        },
+        {
+            expected: MaximumRetryAfterSeconds,
+            headers: { "retry-after": "Sat, 01 Jan 2028 00:00:00 GMT" },
+            name: "http date beyond the maximum",
+        },
+        { expected: DefaultRetryAfterSeconds, headers: {}, name: "missing header" },
+        { expected: DefaultRetryAfterSeconds, headers: { "retry-after": "" }, name: "empty header" },
+        { expected: DefaultRetryAfterSeconds, headers: { "retry-after": "invalid" }, name: "invalid header" },
+    ] as { expected: number; headers: Record<string, string>; name: string }[])(
+        "returns the retry after for $name",
+        ({ expected, headers }) => {
+            expect(getRetryAfter(newResponse(429, headers))).toBe(expected);
+        },
+    );
+
+    it("rounds a partial second up", () => {
+        vi.setSystemTime(new Date("2026-01-01T00:00:59.500Z"));
+
+        expect(getRetryAfter(newResponse(429, { "retry-after": "Thu, 01 Jan 2026 00:01:00 GMT" }))).toBe(1);
+    });
+});
+
+describe("registerRateLimitInterceptor", () => {
+    it("throws a RateLimitedError when the response is rejected with a 429", async () => {
+        const instance = newInstance(429, { "retry-after": "30" });
+
+        const err = await instance.get("/api").catch((e: unknown) => e);
+
+        expect(err).toBeInstanceOf(RateLimitedError);
+        expect((err as RateLimitedError).retryAfter).toBe(30);
+        expect((err as RateLimitedError).message).toBe("Too Many Requests");
+    });
+
+    it("throws a RateLimitedError when validateStatus accepts a 429", async () => {
+        const instance = newInstance(429, { "retry-after": "15" }, () => true);
+
+        const err = await instance.get("/api").catch((e: unknown) => e);
+
+        expect(err).toBeInstanceOf(RateLimitedError);
+        expect((err as RateLimitedError).retryAfter).toBe(15);
+    });
+
+    it("uses the default retry after when the header is missing", async () => {
+        const instance = newInstance(429);
+
+        const err = await instance.get("/api").catch((e: unknown) => e);
+
+        expect(err).toBeInstanceOf(RateLimitedError);
+        expect((err as RateLimitedError).retryAfter).toBe(DefaultRetryAfterSeconds);
+    });
+
+    it("passes through other errors unchanged", async () => {
+        const instance = newInstance(401);
+
+        const err = await instance.get("/api").catch((e: unknown) => e);
+
+        expect(err).toBeInstanceOf(AxiosError);
+        expect(err).not.toBeInstanceOf(RateLimitedError);
+        expect((err as AxiosError).response?.status).toBe(401);
+    });
+
+    it("passes through successful responses unchanged", async () => {
+        const instance = newInstance(200);
+
+        const resp = await instance.get("/api");
+
+        expect(resp.status).toBe(200);
+    });
+});

web/src/services/RateLimit.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: 2026 Authelia
+//
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+
+import axios, { AxiosInstance, AxiosResponse } from "axios";
+
+export const DefaultRetryAfterSeconds = 10;
+export const MinimumRetryAfterSeconds = 1;
+export const MaximumRetryAfterSeconds = 86400;
+
+export class RateLimitedError extends Error {
+    readonly retryAfter: number;
+
+    constructor(retryAfter: number) {
+        super("Too Many Requests");
+        this.name = "RateLimitedError";
+        this.retryAfter = retryAfter;
+    }
+}
+
+export function getRetryAfter(resp: AxiosResponse): number {
+    const value = resp.headers?.["retry-after"];
+
+    if (typeof value !== "string" || value === "") {
+        return DefaultRetryAfterSeconds;
+    }
+
+    if (/^\d+$/.test(value)) {
+        return clampRetryAfter(Number.parseInt(value, 10));
+    }
+
+    const date = new Date(value);
+
+    if (Number.isNaN(date.getTime())) {
+        return DefaultRetryAfterSeconds;
+    }
+
+    return clampRetryAfter(Math.ceil((date.getTime() - Date.now()) / 1000));
+}
+
+function clampRetryAfter(seconds: number): number {
+    if (!Number.isFinite(seconds)) {
+        return DefaultRetryAfterSeconds;
+    }
+
+    return Math.min(MaximumRetryAfterSeconds, Math.max(MinimumRetryAfterSeconds, seconds));
+}
+
+export function registerRateLimitInterceptor(instance: AxiosInstance = axios) {
+    return instance.interceptors.response.use(
+        (resp) => {
+            if (resp.status === 429) {
+                throw new RateLimitedError(getRetryAfter(resp));
+            }
+
+            return resp;
+        },
+        (err) => {
+            if (axios.isAxiosError(err) && err.response?.status === 429) {
+                throw new RateLimitedError(getRetryAfter(err.response));
+            }
+
+            throw err;
+        },
+    );
+}

web/src/services/ResetPassword.test.ts

@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
 
 import axios from "axios";
 
-import { PostWithOptionalResponse, PostWithOptionalResponseRateLimited } from "@services/Client";
+import { PostWithOptionalResponse } from "@services/Client";
 import {
     completeResetPasswordProcess,
     deleteResetPasswordToken,
@@ -17,24 +17,22 @@ vi.mock("@services/Api", () => ({
     CompleteResetPasswordPath: "/reset-password/finish",
     InitiateResetPasswordPath: "/reset-password/start",
     ResetPasswordPath: "/reset-password",
-    validateStatusTooManyRequests: vi.fn(),
 }));
 vi.mock("@services/Client", () => ({
     PostWithOptionalResponse: vi.fn(),
-    PostWithOptionalResponseRateLimited: vi.fn(),
 }));
 
 it("initiates reset password process", async () => {
-    (PostWithOptionalResponseRateLimited as any).mockResolvedValue("response");
+    (PostWithOptionalResponse as any).mockResolvedValue("response");
     const result = await initiateResetPasswordProcess("user");
-    expect(PostWithOptionalResponseRateLimited).toHaveBeenCalledWith("/reset-password/start", { username: "user" });
+    expect(PostWithOptionalResponse).toHaveBeenCalledWith("/reset-password/start", { username: "user" });
     expect(result).toBe("response");
 });
 
 it("completes reset password process", async () => {
-    (PostWithOptionalResponseRateLimited as any).mockResolvedValue("response");
+    (PostWithOptionalResponse as any).mockResolvedValue("response");
     const result = await completeResetPasswordProcess("token123");
-    expect(PostWithOptionalResponseRateLimited).toHaveBeenCalledWith("/reset-password/finish", { token: "token123" });
+    expect(PostWithOptionalResponse).toHaveBeenCalledWith("/reset-password/finish", { token: "token123" });
     expect(result).toBe("response");
 });
 
@@ -53,7 +51,6 @@ it("deletes reset password token with ok", async () => {
         data: { token: "token123" },
         method: "DELETE",
         url: "/reset-password",
-        validateStatus: expect.any(Function),
     });
     expect(result).toEqual({ ok: true, status: 200 });
 });

web/src/services/ResetPassword.ts

@@ -10,16 +10,15 @@ import {
     InitiateResetPasswordPath,
     OKResponse,
     ResetPasswordPath,
-    validateStatusTooManyRequests,
 } from "@services/Api";
-import { PostWithOptionalResponse, PostWithOptionalResponseRateLimited } from "@services/Client";
+import { PostWithOptionalResponse } from "@services/Client";
 
 export async function initiateResetPasswordProcess(username: string) {
-    return PostWithOptionalResponseRateLimited(InitiateResetPasswordPath, { username });
+    return PostWithOptionalResponse(InitiateResetPasswordPath, { username });
 }
 
 export async function completeResetPasswordProcess(token: string) {
-    return PostWithOptionalResponseRateLimited(CompleteResetPasswordPath, { token });
+    return PostWithOptionalResponse(CompleteResetPasswordPath, { token });
 }
 
 export async function resetPassword(newPassword: string) {
@@ -31,7 +30,6 @@ export async function deleteResetPasswordToken(token: string) {
         data: { token: token },
         method: "DELETE",
         url: ResetPasswordPath,
-        validateStatus: validateStatusTooManyRequests,
     });
 
     return { ok: res.status === 200 && res.data.status === "OK", status: res.status };

web/src/services/UserSessionElevation.test.ts

@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@
 import axios from "axios";
 
 import { hasServiceError, toData, validateStatusOneTimeCode } from "@services/Api";
+import { PostWithOptionalResponse } from "@services/Client";
 import {
     deleteUserSessionElevation,
     generateUserSessionElevation,
@@ -19,6 +20,9 @@ vi.mock("@services/Api", () => ({
     UserSessionElevationPath: "/user/elevation",
     validateStatusOneTimeCode: vi.fn(),
 }));
+vi.mock("@services/Client", () => ({
+    PostWithOptionalResponse: vi.fn(),
+}));
 
 it("gets user session elevation successfully", async () => {
     const mockRes = { data: { data: "elevation", status: "OK" }, status: 200 };
@@ -45,23 +49,18 @@ it("gets user session elevation with error", async () => {
 });
 
 it("generates user session elevation successfully", async () => {
-    const mockRes = { data: { data: "generate", status: "OK" }, status: 200 };
+    const mockResponse = { delete_id: "abc" };
-    (axios as any).mockResolvedValue(mockRes);
+    (PostWithOptionalResponse as any).mockResolvedValue(mockResponse);
-    (hasServiceError as any).mockReturnValue({ errored: false });
-    (toData as any).mockReturnValue("generate");
 
     const result = await generateUserSessionElevation();
-    expect(axios).toHaveBeenCalledWith({
+    expect(PostWithOptionalResponse).toHaveBeenCalledWith("/user/elevation");
-        method: "POST",
+    expect(result).toEqual(mockResponse);
-        url: "/user/elevation",
-    });
-    expect(result).toBe("generate");
 });
 
 it("generates user session elevation with error", async () => {
-    const mockRes = { data: { message: "error", status: "KO" }, status: 400 };
+    (PostWithOptionalResponse as any).mockRejectedValue(
-    (axios as any).mockResolvedValue(mockRes);
+        new Error("Failed POST to /user/elevation. Code: 400. Message: error"),
-    (hasServiceError as any).mockReturnValue({ errored: true, message: "error" });
+    );
 
     await expect(generateUserSessionElevation()).rejects.toThrow(
         "Failed POST to /user/elevation. Code: 400. Message: error",

web/src/services/UserSessionElevation.ts

@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@ import {
     toData,
     validateStatusOneTimeCode,
 } from "@services/Api";
+import { PostWithOptionalResponse } from "@services/Client";
 
 export interface UserSessionElevation {
     require_second_factor: boolean;
@@ -43,18 +44,7 @@ export async function getUserSessionElevation() {
 }
 
 export async function generateUserSessionElevation() {
-    const res = await axios<ServiceResponse<UserSessionElevationGenerateData>>({
+    return PostWithOptionalResponse<UserSessionElevationGenerateData>(UserSessionElevationPath);
-        method: "POST",
-        url: UserSessionElevationPath,
-    });
-
-    if (res.status !== 200 || hasServiceError(res).errored) {
-        throw new Error(
-            `Failed POST to ${UserSessionElevationPath}. Code: ${res.status}. Message: ${hasServiceError(res).message}`,
-        );
-    }
-
-    return toData<UserSessionElevationGenerateData>(res);
 }
 
 export async function verifyUserSessionElevation(otc: string) {

web/src/views/LoginPortal/SecondFactor/OneTimePasswordMethod.test.tsx

@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@
 import { act, fireEvent, render, screen, waitFor } from "@testing-library/react";
 
 import { completeTOTPSignIn } from "@services/OneTimePassword";
+import { RateLimitedError } from "@services/RateLimit";
 import { AuthenticationLevel } from "@services/State";
 import OneTimePasswordMethod from "@views/LoginPortal/SecondFactor/OneTimePasswordMethod";
 
@@ -101,7 +102,7 @@ beforeEach(() => {
     mocks.configError = undefined;
     mocks.queryParams = {};
     mocks.userCode = null;
-    completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({ data: { redirect: "https://example.com" } } as any);
+    completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({ redirect: "https://example.com" });
 });
 
 afterEach(() => {
@@ -268,7 +269,7 @@ describe("sign in", () => {
     });
 
     it("reports success with no redirect when the response carries no data", async () => {
-        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({} as any);
+        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue(undefined);
 
         const { props } = renderMethod();
 
@@ -277,21 +278,6 @@ describe("sign in", () => {
         await waitFor(() => expect(props.onSignInSuccess).toHaveBeenCalledWith(undefined));
     });
 
-    it("reports a wrong code when the response is empty", async () => {
-        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue(null as any);
-
-        const { props } = renderMethod();
-
-        fireEvent.click(screen.getByTestId("dial-full"));
-
-        await waitFor(() =>
-            expect(props.onSignInError).toHaveBeenCalledWith(
-                expect.objectContaining({ message: "The One-Time Password might be wrong" }),
-            ),
-        );
-        await waitFor(() => expect(screen.getByTestId("otp-dial")).toHaveAttribute("data-state", "3"));
-    });
-
     it("reports a wrong code when the request throws", async () => {
         completeSignInMock.mockRejectedValue(new Error("boom"));
 
@@ -317,7 +303,7 @@ describe("sign in", () => {
 
     it("reports rate limiting and recovers after the retry window", async () => {
         vi.useFakeTimers();
-        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({ limited: true, retryAfter: 5 } as any);
+        completeSignInMock.mockRejectedValue(new RateLimitedError(5));
 
         const { props } = renderMethod();
 
@@ -339,7 +325,7 @@ describe("sign in", () => {
 
     it("clears the rate limit timer on unmount", async () => {
         vi.useFakeTimers();
-        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({ limited: true, retryAfter: 5 } as any);
+        completeSignInMock.mockRejectedValue(new RateLimitedError(5));
 
         const { unmount } = renderMethod();
 

web/src/views/LoginPortal/SecondFactor/OneTimePasswordMethod.tsx

@@ -6,12 +6,15 @@ import { useCallback, useEffect, useReducer, useRef, useState } from "react";
 
 import { useTranslation } from "react-i18next";
 
+import RateLimitCountdown from "@components/RateLimitCountdown";
 import { RedirectionURL } from "@constants/SearchParams";
 import { useFlow } from "@hooks/Flow";
 import { useUserCode } from "@hooks/OpenIDConnect";
 import { useQueryParam } from "@hooks/QueryParam";
+import { useRateLimit } from "@hooks/RateLimit";
 import { useUserInfoTOTPConfiguration } from "@hooks/UserInfoTOTPConfiguration";
 import { completeTOTPSignIn } from "@services/OneTimePassword";
+import { RateLimitedError } from "@services/RateLimit";
 import { AuthenticationLevel } from "@services/State";
 import LoadingPage from "@views/LoadingPage/LoadingPage";
 import MethodContainer, { State as MethodContainerState } from "@views/LoginPortal/SecondFactor/MethodContainer";
@@ -47,7 +50,7 @@ const OneTimePasswordMethod = function (props: Props) {
     const { onSignInError, onSignInSuccess } = props;
     const onSignInErrorCallbackRef = useRef(onSignInError);
     const onSignInSuccessCallbackRef = useRef(onSignInSuccess);
-    const timeoutRateLimitRef = useRef<null | ReturnType<typeof setTimeout>>(null);
+    const { secondsRemaining, trigger: triggerRateLimit } = useRateLimit(() => dispatch({ type: State.Idle }));
 
     useEffect(() => {
         onSignInErrorCallbackRef.current = onSignInError;
@@ -57,15 +60,6 @@ const OneTimePasswordMethod = function (props: Props) {
         onSignInSuccessCallbackRef.current = onSignInSuccess;
     }, [onSignInSuccess]);
 
-    useEffect(() => {
-        return () => {
-            if (timeoutRateLimitRef.current !== null) {
-                clearTimeout(timeoutRateLimitRef.current);
-                timeoutRateLimitRef.current = null;
-            }
-        };
-    }, []);
-
     useEffect(() => {
         if (err) {
             console.error(err);
@@ -82,20 +76,13 @@ const OneTimePasswordMethod = function (props: Props) {
 
     const handleRateLimited = useCallback(
         (retryAfter: number) => {
-            if (timeoutRateLimitRef.current) {
-                clearTimeout(timeoutRateLimitRef.current);
-            }
-
             dispatch({ type: State.RateLimited });
 
             onSignInErrorCallbackRef.current(new Error(translate("You have made too many requests")));
 
-            timeoutRateLimitRef.current = setTimeout(() => {
+            triggerRateLimit(retryAfter);
-                dispatch({ type: State.Idle });
-                timeoutRateLimitRef.current = null;
-            }, retryAfter * 1000);
         },
-        [onSignInErrorCallbackRef, translate],
+        [onSignInErrorCallbackRef, translate, triggerRateLimit],
     );
 
     useEffect(() => {
@@ -120,19 +107,16 @@ const OneTimePasswordMethod = function (props: Props) {
                 dispatch({ type: State.InProgress });
                 const res = await completeTOTPSignIn(passcodeStr, redirectionURL, flowID, flow, subflow, userCode);
 
-                if (!res) {
+                dispatch({ type: State.Success });
+                onSignInSuccessCallbackRef.current(res?.redirect);
+            } catch (err) {
+                if (err instanceof RateLimitedError) {
+                    handleRateLimited(err.retryAfter);
+                } else {
+                    console.error(err);
                     onSignInErrorCallbackRef.current(new Error(translate("The One-Time Password might be wrong")));
                     dispatch({ type: State.Failure });
-                } else if (res.limited) {
-                    handleRateLimited(res.retryAfter);
-                } else {
-                    dispatch({ type: State.Success });
-                    onSignInSuccessCallbackRef.current(res?.data?.redirect);
                 }
-            } catch (err) {
-                console.error(err);
-                onSignInErrorCallbackRef.current(new Error(translate("The One-Time Password might be wrong")));
-                dispatch({ type: State.Failure });
             }
             setPasscode("");
         };
@@ -183,6 +167,7 @@ const OneTimePasswordMethod = function (props: Props) {
                 ) : (
                     <LoadingPage />
                 )}
+                <RateLimitCountdown secondsRemaining={secondsRemaining} />
             </div>
         </MethodContainer>
     );

web/src/views/LoginPortal/SecondFactor/PasswordForm.test.tsx

@@ -2,9 +2,10 @@
 //
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
-import { fireEvent, render, screen, waitFor } from "@testing-library/react";
+import { act, fireEvent, render, screen, waitFor } from "@testing-library/react";
 
 import { postSecondFactor } from "@services/Password";
+import { RateLimitedError } from "@services/RateLimit";
 import PasswordForm from "@views/LoginPortal/SecondFactor/PasswordForm";
 
 const mocks = vi.hoisted(() => ({
@@ -111,7 +112,7 @@ describe("validation", () => {
 
 describe("sign in", () => {
     it("posts the password and reports success", async () => {
-        postSecondFactorMock.mockResolvedValue({ redirect: "https://example.com" } as any);
+        postSecondFactorMock.mockResolvedValue({ redirect: "https://example.com" });
 
         const { onAuthenticationSuccess } = renderForm();
 
@@ -187,6 +188,39 @@ describe("sign in", () => {
         expect(getSubmit()).not.toBeDisabled();
         expect(onAuthenticationSuccess).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
     });
+
+    it("notifies and disables the form until the retry period elapses when rate limited", async () => {
+        vi.useFakeTimers({ shouldAdvanceTime: true });
+
+        try {
+            postSecondFactorMock.mockRejectedValue(new RateLimitedError(30));
+
+            const { onAuthenticationSuccess } = renderForm();
+
+            fireEvent.change(getPassword(), { target: { value: "secret" } });
+            fireEvent.click(getSubmit());
+
+            await waitFor(() =>
+                expect(mocks.createErrorNotification).toHaveBeenCalledWith("You have made too many requests"),
+            );
+            expect(getPassword()).toHaveValue("");
+            expect(getPassword()).toBeDisabled();
+            expect(getSubmit()).toBeDisabled();
+            expect(onAuthenticationSuccess).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
+            expect(document.getElementById("rate-limit-countdown")).toBeInTheDocument();
+
+            await act(async () => {
+                await vi.advanceTimersByTimeAsync(30000);
+            });
+
+            await waitFor(() => expect(getPassword()).not.toBeDisabled());
+            expect(getPassword()).toHaveFocus();
+            expect(getSubmit()).not.toBeDisabled();
+            expect(document.getElementById("rate-limit-countdown")).not.toBeInTheDocument();
+        } finally {
+            vi.useRealTimers();
+        }
+    });
 });
 
 describe("keyboard handling", () => {

web/src/views/LoginPortal/SecondFactor/PasswordForm.tsx

@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@ import { KeyboardEvent, useCallback, useEffect, useRef, useState } from "react";
 
 import { useTranslation } from "react-i18next";
 
+import RateLimitCountdown from "@components/RateLimitCountdown";
 import { Alert, AlertTitle } from "@components/UI/Alert";
 import { Button } from "@components/UI/Button";
 import { Input } from "@components/UI/Input";
@@ -17,8 +18,10 @@ import { useNotifications } from "@contexts/NotificationsContext";
 import { useFlow } from "@hooks/Flow";
 import { usePasswordVisibility } from "@hooks/PasswordVisibility";
 import { useQueryParam } from "@hooks/QueryParam";
+import { useRateLimit } from "@hooks/RateLimit";
 import { IsCapsLockModified } from "@services/CapsLock";
 import { postSecondFactor } from "@services/Password";
+import { RateLimitedError } from "@services/RateLimit";
 
 export interface Props {
     onAuthenticationSuccess: (_redirectURL: string | undefined) => void;
@@ -37,6 +40,7 @@ const PasswordForm = function (props: Props) {
     const [passwordCapsLock, setPasswordCapsLock] = useState(false);
     const [passwordCapsLockPartial, setPasswordCapsLockPartial] = useState(false);
     const [passwordError, setPasswordError] = useState(false);
+    const { limited: rateLimited, secondsRemaining, trigger: triggerRateLimit } = useRateLimit();
 
     const passwordRef = useRef<HTMLInputElement | null>(null);
 
@@ -51,7 +55,28 @@ const PasswordForm = function (props: Props) {
         return () => clearTimeout(timeout);
     }, [focusPassword]);
 
+    const wasRateLimitedRef = useRef(rateLimited);
+
+    useEffect(() => {
+        if (wasRateLimitedRef.current && !rateLimited) focusPassword();
+
+        wasRateLimitedRef.current = rateLimited;
+    }, [focusPassword, rateLimited]);
+
+    const handleRateLimited = useCallback(
+        (retryAfter: number) => {
+            triggerRateLimit(retryAfter);
+            setPassword("");
+            setLoading(false);
+
+            createErrorNotification(translate("You have made too many requests"));
+        },
+        [createErrorNotification, translate, triggerRateLimit],
+    );
+
     const handleSignIn = useCallback(async () => {
+        if (rateLimited) return;
+
         if (password === "") {
             setPasswordError(true);
 
@@ -62,15 +87,34 @@ const PasswordForm = function (props: Props) {
 
         try {
             const res = await postSecondFactor(password, redirectionURL, flowID, flow, subflow);
-            props.onAuthenticationSuccess(res ? res.redirect : undefined);
+
+            props.onAuthenticationSuccess(res?.redirect);
         } catch (err) {
+            if (err instanceof RateLimitedError) {
+                handleRateLimited(err.retryAfter);
+
+                return;
+            }
+
             console.error(err);
             createErrorNotification(translate("Incorrect password"));
             setPassword("");
             setLoading(false);
             focusPassword();
         }
-    }, [createErrorNotification, focusPassword, password, props, redirectionURL, translate, flowID, flow, subflow]);
+    }, [
+        createErrorNotification,
+        focusPassword,
+        handleRateLimited,
+        password,
+        props,
+        rateLimited,
+        redirectionURL,
+        translate,
+        flowID,
+        flow,
+        subflow,
+    ]);
 
     const handlePasswordKeyDown = useCallback(
         (event: KeyboardEvent<HTMLInputElement>) => {
@@ -119,7 +163,7 @@ const PasswordForm = function (props: Props) {
                             ref={passwordRef}
                             id="password-textfield"
                             required
-                            disabled={loading}
+                            disabled={loading || rateLimited}
                             value={password}
                             className="pr-10"
                             error={passwordError}
@@ -152,13 +196,14 @@ const PasswordForm = function (props: Props) {
                         id="sign-in-button"
                         variant="default"
                         className="w-full"
-                        disabled={loading}
+                        disabled={loading || rateLimited}
                         onClick={handleSignIn}
                     >
                         {translate("Authenticate", { ns: "settings" })}
                         {loading ? <Spinner size={20} className="ml-2 h-5 w-5" /> : null}
                     </Button>
                 </div>
+                <RateLimitCountdown secondsRemaining={secondsRemaining} />
             </div>
         </form>
     );

web/src/views/LoginPortal/SecondFactor/PushNotificationMethod.test.tsx

@@ -10,6 +10,7 @@ import {
     getPreferredDuoDevice,
     initiateDuoDeviceSelectionProcess,
 } from "@services/PushNotification";
+import { RateLimitedError } from "@services/RateLimit";
 import { AuthenticationLevel } from "@services/State";
 import PushNotificationMethod from "@views/LoginPortal/SecondFactor/PushNotificationMethod";
 
@@ -108,7 +109,7 @@ beforeEach(() => {
     vi.spyOn(console, "error").mockImplementation(() => {});
     vi.spyOn(console, "debug").mockImplementation(() => {});
     getPreferredMock.mockResolvedValue({} as any);
-    completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue(null as any);
+    completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue(undefined);
     initiateSelectionMock.mockResolvedValue({} as any);
     completeSelectionMock.mockResolvedValue(undefined as any);
 });
@@ -180,7 +181,7 @@ describe("preferred device lookup", () => {
 describe("sign in", () => {
     it("reports success after the success delay", async () => {
         vi.useFakeTimers();
-        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({ data: { redirect: "https://example.com" } } as any);
+        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({ redirect: "https://example.com" } as any);
 
         const { props } = renderMethod();
 
@@ -192,9 +193,9 @@ describe("sign in", () => {
         expect(props.onSignInSuccess).toHaveBeenCalledWith("https://example.com");
     });
 
-    it("reports success with no redirect when the response carries no data", async () => {
+    it("reports success with no redirect when the response carries no redirect", async () => {
         vi.useFakeTimers();
-        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({ data: undefined } as any);
+        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({} as any);
 
         const { props } = renderMethod();
 
@@ -205,17 +206,18 @@ describe("sign in", () => {
         expect(props.onSignInSuccess).toHaveBeenCalledWith(undefined);
     });
 
-    it("fails when the sign in response is missing", async () => {
+    it("reports success with no redirect when the sign in response is missing", async () => {
-        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue(null as any);
+        vi.useFakeTimers();
+        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue(undefined);
 
         const { props } = renderMethod();
 
-        await waitFor(() =>
+        await vi.waitFor(() => expect(screen.getByTestId("success-icon")).toBeInTheDocument());
-            expect(props.onSignInError).toHaveBeenCalledWith(
+
-                expect.objectContaining({ message: "There was an issue completing sign in process" }),
+        await vi.advanceTimersByTimeAsync(1500);
-            ),
+
-        );
+        expect(props.onSignInSuccess).toHaveBeenCalledWith(undefined);
-        expect(screen.getByTestId("failure-icon")).toBeInTheDocument();
+        expect(props.onSignInError).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
     });
 
     it("fails when the sign in request throws", async () => {
@@ -243,10 +245,8 @@ describe("sign in", () => {
 
     it("shows the device selection when the result requires auth", async () => {
         completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({
-            data: {
+            devices: [{ capabilities: ["push"], device: "device-a", display_name: "Phone" }],
-                devices: [{ capabilities: ["push"], device: "device-a", display_name: "Phone" }],
+            result: "auth",
-                result: "auth",
-            },
         } as any);
 
         renderMethod();
@@ -259,9 +259,7 @@ describe("sign in", () => {
     });
 
     it("moves to the enroll state when no compatible device exists", async () => {
-        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({
+        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({ enroll_url: "https://enroll.example.com", result: "enroll" } as any);
-            data: { enroll_url: "https://enroll.example.com", result: "enroll" },
-        } as any);
 
         const { props } = renderMethod({ duoSelfEnrollment: true });
 
@@ -275,9 +273,7 @@ describe("sign in", () => {
     });
 
     it("does not offer self enrollment when it is disabled", async () => {
-        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({
+        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({ enroll_url: "https://enroll.example.com", result: "enroll" } as any);
-            data: { enroll_url: "https://enroll.example.com", result: "enroll" },
-        } as any);
 
         renderMethod({ duoSelfEnrollment: false });
 
@@ -288,7 +284,7 @@ describe("sign in", () => {
     });
 
     it("does not offer self enrollment when no enroll url is returned", async () => {
-        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({ data: { result: "enroll" } } as any);
+        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({ result: "enroll" } as any);
 
         renderMethod({ duoSelfEnrollment: true });
 
@@ -299,7 +295,7 @@ describe("sign in", () => {
     });
 
     it("fails when the Duo policy denies the device", async () => {
-        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({ data: { result: "deny" } } as any);
+        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({ result: "deny" } as any);
 
         const { props } = renderMethod();
 
@@ -313,7 +309,7 @@ describe("sign in", () => {
 
     it("reports rate limiting and recovers after the retry window", async () => {
         vi.useFakeTimers();
-        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({ limited: true, retryAfter: 5 } as any);
+        completeSignInMock.mockRejectedValue(new RateLimitedError(5));
 
         const { props } = renderMethod();
 
@@ -332,7 +328,7 @@ describe("sign in", () => {
     });
 
     it("retries the sign in from the failure state", async () => {
-        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue(null as any);
+        completeSignInMock.mockRejectedValue(new Error("boom"));
 
         renderMethod();
 
@@ -468,10 +464,8 @@ describe("device selection", () => {
 
     it("returns to the previous state when selection is dismissed", async () => {
         completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({
-            data: {
+            devices: [{ capabilities: ["push"], device: "device-a", display_name: "Phone" }],
-                devices: [{ capabilities: ["push"], device: "device-a", display_name: "Phone" }],
+            result: "auth",
-                result: "auth",
-            },
         } as any);
 
         renderMethod();
@@ -485,10 +479,8 @@ describe("device selection", () => {
 
     it("persists a newly selected device and signs in again", async () => {
         completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({
-            data: {
+            devices: [{ capabilities: ["push"], device: "device-a", display_name: "Phone" }],
-                devices: [{ capabilities: ["push"], device: "device-a", display_name: "Phone" }],
+            result: "auth",
-                result: "auth",
-            },
         } as any);
 
         renderMethod({ registered: false });
@@ -507,10 +499,8 @@ describe("device selection", () => {
 
     it("notifies the parent when an unregistered user picks a device", async () => {
         completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({
-            data: {
+            devices: [{ capabilities: ["push"], device: "device-a", display_name: "Phone" }],
-                devices: [{ capabilities: ["push"], device: "device-a", display_name: "Phone" }],
+            result: "auth",
-                result: "auth",
-            },
         } as any);
 
         const { props } = renderMethod({ registered: false });
@@ -524,10 +514,8 @@ describe("device selection", () => {
 
     it("does not notify the parent when the user is already registered", async () => {
         completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({
-            data: {
+            devices: [{ capabilities: ["push"], device: "device-a", display_name: "Phone" }],
-                devices: [{ capabilities: ["push"], device: "device-a", display_name: "Phone" }],
+            result: "auth",
-                result: "auth",
-            },
         } as any);
 
         const { props } = renderMethod({ registered: true });
@@ -542,10 +530,8 @@ describe("device selection", () => {
 
     it("reports failures updating the preferred Duo device", async () => {
         completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({
-            data: {
+            devices: [{ capabilities: ["push"], device: "device-a", display_name: "Phone" }],
-                devices: [{ capabilities: ["push"], device: "device-a", display_name: "Phone" }],
+            result: "auth",
-                result: "auth",
-            },
         } as any);
         completeSelectionMock.mockRejectedValue(new Error("boom"));
 
@@ -564,10 +550,8 @@ describe("device selection", () => {
 
     it("swallows cancelled preferred device updates", async () => {
         completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({
-            data: {
+            devices: [{ capabilities: ["push"], device: "device-a", display_name: "Phone" }],
-                devices: [{ capabilities: ["push"], device: "device-a", display_name: "Phone" }],
+            result: "auth",
-                result: "auth",
-            },
         } as any);
         completeSelectionMock.mockRejectedValue({ __CANCEL__: true });
 
@@ -603,9 +587,7 @@ describe("device selection", () => {
 describe("self enrollment", () => {
     it("opens the enrollment url in a new tab", async () => {
         const open = vi.spyOn(window, "open").mockImplementation(() => null);
-        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({
+        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({ enroll_url: "https://enroll.example.com", result: "enroll" } as any);
-            data: { enroll_url: "https://enroll.example.com", result: "enroll" },
-        } as any);
 
         renderMethod({ duoSelfEnrollment: true });
 
@@ -622,11 +604,11 @@ describe("self enrollment", () => {
 describe("cleanup and edge cases", () => {
     it("clears both pending timers on unmount", async () => {
         vi.useFakeTimers();
-        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({ limited: true, retryAfter: 5 } as any);
+        completeSignInMock.mockRejectedValue(new RateLimitedError(5));
 
         const { unmount } = renderMethod();
 
-        await vi.waitFor(() => expect(completeSignInMock).toHaveBeenCalled());
+        await vi.waitFor(() => expect(document.getElementById("rate-limit-countdown")).toBeInTheDocument());
 
         const clearTimeoutSpy = vi.spyOn(globalThis, "clearTimeout");
 
@@ -637,7 +619,7 @@ describe("cleanup and edge cases", () => {
 
     it("clears the success timer on unmount", async () => {
         vi.useFakeTimers();
-        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({ data: { redirect: "https://example.com" } } as any);
+        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({ redirect: "https://example.com" } as any);
 
         const { props, unmount } = renderMethod();
 
@@ -654,7 +636,7 @@ describe("cleanup and edge cases", () => {
 
     it("replaces an in flight rate limit timer", async () => {
         vi.useFakeTimers();
-        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({ limited: true, retryAfter: 5 } as any);
+        completeSignInMock.mockRejectedValue(new RateLimitedError(5));
 
         const { props } = renderMethod();
 
@@ -705,7 +687,7 @@ describe("cleanup and edge cases", () => {
     });
 
     it("returns to the pre-selection state after browsing devices from the method container", async () => {
-        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue(null as any);
+        completeSignInMock.mockRejectedValue(new Error("boom"));
         initiateSelectionMock.mockResolvedValue({
             devices: [{ capabilities: ["push"], device: "device-a", display_name: "Phone" }],
             result: "auth",

web/src/views/LoginPortal/SecondFactor/PushNotificationMethod.tsx

@@ -9,6 +9,7 @@ import { useTranslation } from "react-i18next";
 
 import FailureIcon from "@components/FailureIcon";
 import PushNotificationIcon from "@components/PushNotificationIcon";
+import RateLimitCountdown from "@components/RateLimitCountdown";
 import SuccessIcon from "@components/SuccessIcon";
 import { Button } from "@components/UI/Button";
 import { RedirectionURL } from "@constants/SearchParams";
@@ -16,6 +17,7 @@ import { useAbortSignal } from "@hooks/Abort";
 import { useFlow } from "@hooks/Flow";
 import { useUserCode } from "@hooks/OpenIDConnect";
 import { useQueryParam } from "@hooks/QueryParam";
+import { useRateLimit } from "@hooks/RateLimit";
 import {
     DuoDevicePostRequest,
     completeDuoDeviceSelectionProcess,
@@ -23,6 +25,7 @@ import {
     getPreferredDuoDevice,
     initiateDuoDeviceSelectionProcess,
 } from "@services/PushNotification";
+import { RateLimitedError } from "@services/RateLimit";
 import { AuthenticationLevel } from "@services/State";
 import DeviceSelectionContainer, {
     SelectableDevice,
@@ -68,15 +71,11 @@ const PushNotificationMethod = function (props: Props) {
     const { onSignInError, onSignInSuccess } = props;
     const stateRef = useRef<null | State>(null);
 
-    const timeoutRateLimitRef = useRef<null | ReturnType<typeof setTimeout>>(null);
+    const { secondsRemaining, trigger: triggerRateLimit } = useRateLimit(() => setState(State.Failure));
     const timeoutSuccessRef = useRef<null | ReturnType<typeof setTimeout>>(null);
 
     useEffect(() => {
         return () => {
-            if (timeoutRateLimitRef.current !== null) {
-                clearTimeout(timeoutRateLimitRef.current);
-                timeoutRateLimitRef.current = null;
-            }
             if (timeoutSuccessRef.current !== null) {
                 clearTimeout(timeoutSuccessRef.current);
                 timeoutSuccessRef.current = null;
@@ -120,20 +119,13 @@ const PushNotificationMethod = function (props: Props) {
 
     const handleRateLimited = useCallback(
         (retryAfter: number) => {
-            if (timeoutRateLimitRef.current) {
-                clearTimeout(timeoutRateLimitRef.current);
-            }
-
             setState(State.RateLimited);
 
             onSignInError(new Error(translate("You have made too many requests")));
 
-            timeoutRateLimitRef.current = setTimeout(() => {
+            triggerRateLimit(retryAfter);
-                setState(State.Failure);
-                timeoutRateLimitRef.current = null;
-            }, retryAfter * 1000);
         },
-        [onSignInError, translate],
+        [onSignInError, translate, triggerRateLimit],
     );
 
     const handleFetchDuoDevices = useCallback(async () => {
@@ -186,24 +178,17 @@ const PushNotificationMethod = function (props: Props) {
                 getSignal(),
             );
             if (!res) {
-                throw new Error(translate("There was an issue completing sign in process"));
-            }
-            if (res.limited) {
-                handleRateLimited(res.retryAfter);
-                return;
-            }
-            if (!res.data) {
                 handleSuccess(undefined);
                 return;
             }
-            switch (res.data.result) {
+            switch (res.result) {
                 case "auth":
-                    setDevices(processDevices(res.data.devices));
+                    setDevices(processDevices(res.devices));
                     setState(State.Selection);
                     break;
                 case "enroll":
                     onSignInError(new Error(translate("No compatible device found")));
-                    if (res.data.enroll_url && props.duoSelfEnrollment) setEnrollUrl(res.data.enroll_url);
+                    if (res.enroll_url && props.duoSelfEnrollment) setEnrollUrl(res.enroll_url);
                     setState(State.Enroll);
                     break;
                 case "deny":
@@ -211,10 +196,14 @@ const PushNotificationMethod = function (props: Props) {
                     setState(State.Failure);
                     break;
                 default:
-                    handleSuccess(res.data.redirect);
+                    handleSuccess(res.redirect);
             }
         } catch (err) {
             if (axios.isCancel(err)) return;
+            if (err instanceof RateLimitedError) {
+                handleRateLimited(err.retryAfter);
+                return;
+            }
             console.error(err);
             onSignInError(new Error(translate("There was an issue completing sign in process")));
             setState(State.Failure);
@@ -336,6 +325,7 @@ const PushNotificationMethod = function (props: Props) {
             onRegisterClick={() => window.open(enrollUrl, "_blank", "noopener,noreferrer")}
         >
             <div className="flex w-full justify-center">{icon}</div>
+            <RateLimitCountdown secondsRemaining={secondsRemaining} />
             <div className={state === State.Failure ? "" : "hidden"}>
                 <Button variant={"ghost"} color={"secondary"} onClick={handleSignIn}>
                     {translate("Retry")}

web/src/views/ResetPassword/ResetPasswordStep1.test.tsx

@@ -4,6 +4,7 @@
 
 import { act, fireEvent, render, screen, waitFor } from "@testing-library/react";
 
+import { RateLimitedError } from "@services/RateLimit";
 import ResetPasswordStep1 from "@views/ResetPassword/ResetPasswordStep1";
 
 const mockNavigate = vi.fn();
@@ -71,7 +72,7 @@ it("shows error when username is empty", async () => {
 
 it("navigates to index on successful reset", async () => {
     const { initiateResetPasswordProcess } = await import("@services/ResetPassword");
-    vi.mocked(initiateResetPasswordProcess).mockResolvedValue({ limited: false, retryAfter: 0 });
+    vi.mocked(initiateResetPasswordProcess).mockResolvedValue(undefined);
 
     render(<ResetPasswordStep1 />);
 
@@ -89,7 +90,7 @@ it("navigates to index on successful reset", async () => {
 
 it("shows rate limited error", async () => {
     const { initiateResetPasswordProcess } = await import("@services/ResetPassword");
-    vi.mocked(initiateResetPasswordProcess).mockResolvedValue({ limited: true, retryAfter: 30 });
+    vi.mocked(initiateResetPasswordProcess).mockRejectedValue(new RateLimitedError(30));
 
     render(<ResetPasswordStep1 />);
 
@@ -131,7 +132,7 @@ describe("rate limiting", () => {
     it("re-enables the reset button after the retry window", async () => {
         vi.useFakeTimers();
         const { initiateResetPasswordProcess } = await import("@services/ResetPassword");
-        vi.mocked(initiateResetPasswordProcess).mockResolvedValue({ limited: true, retryAfter: 30 });
+        vi.mocked(initiateResetPasswordProcess).mockRejectedValue(new RateLimitedError(30));
 
         render(<ResetPasswordStep1 />);
 
@@ -154,7 +155,7 @@ describe("rate limiting", () => {
     it("replaces an in flight rate limit timer", async () => {
         vi.useFakeTimers();
         const { initiateResetPasswordProcess } = await import("@services/ResetPassword");
-        vi.mocked(initiateResetPasswordProcess).mockResolvedValue({ limited: true, retryAfter: 30 });
+        vi.mocked(initiateResetPasswordProcess).mockRejectedValue(new RateLimitedError(30));
 
         render(<ResetPasswordStep1 />);
 
@@ -196,7 +197,7 @@ describe("rate limiting", () => {
     it("clears the rate limit timer on unmount", async () => {
         vi.useFakeTimers();
         const { initiateResetPasswordProcess } = await import("@services/ResetPassword");
-        vi.mocked(initiateResetPasswordProcess).mockResolvedValue({ limited: true, retryAfter: 30 });
+        vi.mocked(initiateResetPasswordProcess).mockRejectedValue(new RateLimitedError(30));
 
         const { unmount } = render(<ResetPasswordStep1 />);
 
@@ -219,7 +220,7 @@ describe("rate limiting", () => {
 describe("keyboard handling", () => {
     it("submits on Enter", async () => {
         const { initiateResetPasswordProcess } = await import("@services/ResetPassword");
-        vi.mocked(initiateResetPasswordProcess).mockResolvedValue({ limited: false, retryAfter: 0 });
+        vi.mocked(initiateResetPasswordProcess).mockResolvedValue(undefined);
 
         render(<ResetPasswordStep1 />);
 
@@ -243,20 +244,6 @@ describe("keyboard handling", () => {
 });
 
 describe("responses", () => {
-    it("reports a missing response", async () => {
-        const { initiateResetPasswordProcess } = await import("@services/ResetPassword");
-        vi.mocked(initiateResetPasswordProcess).mockResolvedValue(undefined as any);
-
-        render(<ResetPasswordStep1 />);
-
-        fireEvent.change(screen.getByLabelText("Username"), { target: { value: "john" } });
-        fireEvent.click(screen.getByText("Reset"));
-
-        await waitFor(() =>
-            expect(mockCreateError).toHaveBeenCalledWith("There was an issue initiating the password reset process"),
-        );
-    });
-
     it("disables the form while loading", async () => {
         const { initiateResetPasswordProcess } = await import("@services/ResetPassword");
         let resolve: (value: unknown) => void = () => {};
@@ -270,7 +257,7 @@ describe("responses", () => {
         await waitFor(() => expect(screen.getByLabelText("Username")).toBeDisabled());
         expect(document.getElementById("cancel-button")).toBeDisabled();
 
-        resolve({ limited: false, retryAfter: 0 });
+        resolve(undefined);
         await waitFor(() => expect(screen.getByLabelText("Username")).not.toBeDisabled());
     });
 });

web/src/views/ResetPassword/ResetPasswordStep1.tsx

@@ -2,19 +2,22 @@
 //
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
-import { useCallback, useEffect, useRef, useState } from "react";
+import { useCallback, useState } from "react";
 
 import { useTranslation } from "react-i18next";
 import { useNavigate } from "react-router";
 
 import ComponentWithTooltip from "@components/ComponentWithTooltip";
+import RateLimitCountdown from "@components/RateLimitCountdown";
 import { Button } from "@components/UI/Button";
 import { Input } from "@components/UI/Input";
 import { Label } from "@components/UI/Label";
 import { Spinner } from "@components/UI/Spinner";
 import { IndexRoute } from "@constants/Routes";
 import { useNotifications } from "@contexts/NotificationsContext";
+import { useRateLimit } from "@hooks/RateLimit";
 import MinimalLayout from "@layouts/MinimalLayout";
+import { RateLimitedError } from "@services/RateLimit";
 import { initiateResetPasswordProcess } from "@services/ResetPassword";
 
 const ResetPasswordStep1 = function () {
@@ -22,38 +25,19 @@ const ResetPasswordStep1 = function () {
     const [error, setError] = useState(false);
     const [loading, setLoading] = useState(false);
 
-    const [rateLimited, setRateLimited] = useState(false);
+    const { limited: rateLimited, secondsRemaining, trigger: triggerRateLimit } = useRateLimit();
-    const timeoutRateLimitRef = useRef<null | ReturnType<typeof setTimeout>>(null);
 
     const { createErrorNotification, createInfoNotification } = useNotifications();
     const navigate = useNavigate();
     const { t: translate } = useTranslation();
 
-    useEffect(() => {
-        return () => {
-            if (timeoutRateLimitRef.current !== null) {
-                clearTimeout(timeoutRateLimitRef.current);
-                timeoutRateLimitRef.current = null;
-            }
-        };
-    }, []);
-
     const handleRateLimited = useCallback(
         (retryAfter: number) => {
-            if (timeoutRateLimitRef.current) {
+            triggerRateLimit(retryAfter);
-                clearTimeout(timeoutRateLimitRef.current);
-            }
-
-            setRateLimited(true);
 
             createErrorNotification(translate("You have made too many requests"));
-
-            timeoutRateLimitRef.current = setTimeout(() => {
-                setRateLimited(false);
-                timeoutRateLimitRef.current = null;
-            }, retryAfter * 1000);
         },
-        [createErrorNotification, translate],
+        [createErrorNotification, translate, triggerRateLimit],
     );
 
     const doInitiateResetPasswordProcess = async () => {
@@ -68,17 +52,15 @@ const ResetPasswordStep1 = function () {
         }
 
         try {
-            const response = await initiateResetPasswordProcess(username);
+            await initiateResetPasswordProcess(username);
-            if (response?.limited === false) {
+            createInfoNotification(translate("An email has been sent to your address to complete the process"));
-                createInfoNotification(translate("An email has been sent to your address to complete the process"));
+            navigate(IndexRoute);
-                navigate(IndexRoute);
+        } catch (err) {
-            } else if (response?.limited) {
+            if (err instanceof RateLimitedError) {
-                handleRateLimited(response.retryAfter);
+                handleRateLimited(err.retryAfter);
             } else {
                 createErrorNotification(translate("There was an issue initiating the password reset process"));
             }
-        } catch {
-            createErrorNotification(translate("There was an issue initiating the password reset process"));
         }
         setLoading(false);
     };
@@ -141,6 +123,7 @@ const ResetPasswordStep1 = function () {
                             </Button>
                         </div>
                     </div>
+                    <RateLimitCountdown secondsRemaining={secondsRemaining} />
                 </div>
             </div>
         </MinimalLayout>

web/src/views/ResetPassword/ResetPasswordStep2.test.tsx

@@ -7,6 +7,7 @@ import { MemoryRouter } from "react-router";
 
 import { PasswordPolicyMode } from "@models/PasswordPolicy";
 import { getPasswordPolicyConfiguration } from "@services/PasswordPolicyConfiguration";
+import { RateLimitedError } from "@services/RateLimit";
 import { completeResetPasswordProcess, resetPassword } from "@services/ResetPassword";
 import ResetPasswordStep2 from "@views/ResetPassword/ResetPasswordStep2";
 
@@ -102,7 +103,7 @@ beforeEach(() => {
     vi.clearAllMocks();
     vi.spyOn(console, "error").mockImplementation(() => {});
     queryParam.token = "test-token";
-    completeProcessMock.mockResolvedValue({} as any);
+    completeProcessMock.mockResolvedValue(undefined);
     getPolicyMock.mockResolvedValue(standardPolicy);
     resetPasswordMock.mockResolvedValue(undefined as any);
 });
@@ -192,7 +193,7 @@ describe("process initiation", () => {
     });
 
     it("notifies and keeps the form disabled when rate limited", async () => {
-        completeProcessMock.mockResolvedValue({ limited: true, retryAfter: 30 } as any);
+        completeProcessMock.mockRejectedValue(new RateLimitedError(30));
 
         renderStep();
 
@@ -203,6 +204,33 @@ describe("process initiation", () => {
         expect(getPolicyMock).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
     });
 
+    it("shows a countdown and retries the process once the retry period elapses when rate limited", async () => {
+        vi.useFakeTimers({ shouldAdvanceTime: true });
+
+        try {
+            completeProcessMock.mockRejectedValueOnce(new RateLimitedError(30));
+
+            renderStep();
+
+            await waitFor(() =>
+                expect(mocks.createErrorNotification).toHaveBeenCalledWith("You have made too many requests"),
+            );
+            expect(document.getElementById("rate-limit-countdown")).toBeInTheDocument();
+            expect(completeProcessMock).toHaveBeenCalledTimes(1);
+
+            await act(async () => {
+                await vi.advanceTimersByTimeAsync(30000);
+            });
+
+            await waitFor(() => expect(completeProcessMock).toHaveBeenCalledTimes(2));
+            expect(completeProcessMock).toHaveBeenLastCalledWith("test-token");
+            await waitFor(() => expect(getReset()).not.toBeDisabled());
+            expect(document.getElementById("rate-limit-countdown")).not.toBeInTheDocument();
+        } finally {
+            vi.useRealTimers();
+        }
+    });
+
     it("notifies and keeps the form disabled when the token expired", async () => {
         completeProcessMock.mockRejectedValue(new Error("expired"));
 

web/src/views/ResetPassword/ResetPasswordStep2.tsx

@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@ import { useTranslation } from "react-i18next";
 import { useNavigate } from "react-router";
 
 import PasswordMeter from "@components/PasswordMeter";
+import RateLimitCountdown from "@components/RateLimitCountdown";
 import { Button } from "@components/UI/Button";
 import { Input } from "@components/UI/Input";
 import { Label } from "@components/UI/Label";
@@ -17,9 +18,11 @@ import { IdentityToken } from "@constants/SearchParams";
 import { useNotifications } from "@contexts/NotificationsContext";
 import { usePasswordVisibility } from "@hooks/PasswordVisibility";
 import { useQueryParam } from "@hooks/QueryParam";
+import { useRateLimit } from "@hooks/RateLimit";
 import MinimalLayout from "@layouts/MinimalLayout";
 import { PasswordPolicyConfiguration, PasswordPolicyMode } from "@models/PasswordPolicy";
 import { getPasswordPolicyConfiguration } from "@services/PasswordPolicyConfiguration";
+import { RateLimitedError } from "@services/RateLimit";
 import { completeResetPasswordProcess, resetPassword } from "@services/ResetPassword";
 
 const uninitiated = Symbol("uninitiated");
@@ -52,20 +55,27 @@ const ResetPasswordStep2 = function () {
     const processToken = useQueryParam(IdentityToken);
 
     const resetInitiatedRef = useRef<null | string | typeof uninitiated | undefined>(uninitiated);
+    const [attempt, setAttempt] = useState(0);
+    const attemptInitiatedRef = useRef(attempt);
+
+    const { secondsRemaining, trigger: triggerRateLimit } = useRateLimit(() => setAttempt((value) => value + 1));
 
     const handleRateLimited = useCallback(
-        (_retryAfter: number) => {
+        (retryAfter: number) => {
-            createErrorNotification(translate("You have made too many requests")); // TODO: Do we want to add the amount of seconds a user should retry in the message?
+            triggerRateLimit(retryAfter);
+
+            createErrorNotification(translate("You have made too many requests"));
         },
-        [createErrorNotification, translate],
+        [createErrorNotification, translate, triggerRateLimit],
     );
 
     useEffect(() => {
-        if (resetInitiatedRef.current === processToken) {
+        if (resetInitiatedRef.current === processToken && attemptInitiatedRef.current === attempt) {
             return;
         }
 
         resetInitiatedRef.current = processToken;
+        attemptInitiatedRef.current = attempt;
 
         const submitReset = async () => {
             if (!processToken) {
@@ -75,17 +85,17 @@ const ResetPasswordStep2 = function () {
             }
 
             try {
-                const response = await completeResetPasswordProcess(processToken);
+                await completeResetPasswordProcess(processToken);
-
-                if (response?.limited) {
-                    handleRateLimited(response.retryAfter);
-                    return;
-                }
 
                 const policy = await getPasswordPolicyConfiguration();
                 setPPolicy(policy);
                 setFormDisabled(false);
             } catch (err) {
+                if (err instanceof RateLimitedError) {
+                    handleRateLimited(err.retryAfter);
+                    return;
+                }
+
                 console.error(err);
                 createErrorNotification(
                     translate("There was an issue completing the process the verification token might have expired"),
@@ -95,7 +105,7 @@ const ResetPasswordStep2 = function () {
         };
 
         submitReset().catch(console.error);
-    }, [processToken, createErrorNotification, translate, handleRateLimited]);
+    }, [attempt, processToken, createErrorNotification, translate, handleRateLimited]);
 
     const doResetPassword = async () => {
         setPassword1("");
@@ -217,6 +227,7 @@ const ResetPasswordStep2 = function () {
                             </Button>
                         </div>
                     </div>
+                    <RateLimitCountdown secondsRemaining={secondsRemaining} />
                 </div>
             </div>
         </MinimalLayout>

web/src/views/Revoke/RevokeResetPasswordTokenView.test.tsx

@@ -4,10 +4,14 @@
 
 import { act, render, screen } from "@testing-library/react";
 
+import { RateLimitedError } from "@services/RateLimit";
 import RevokeResetPasswordTokenView from "@views/Revoke/RevokeResetPasswordTokenView";
 
 vi.mock("react-i18next", () => ({
-    useTranslation: () => ({ t: (key: string) => key }),
+    useTranslation: () => ({
+        t: (key: string, options?: { count?: number }) =>
+            options?.count === undefined ? key : `${key}:${options.count}`,
+    }),
 }));
 
 const mockNavigate = vi.fn();
@@ -68,15 +72,15 @@ it("shows error when token is not provided", async () => {
     expect(mockCreateError).toHaveBeenCalledWith("The Token was not provided");
 });
 
-it("shows rate limited error on 429 response", async () => {
+it("shows rate limited error when the request is rate limited", async () => {
     const { deleteResetPasswordToken } = await import("@services/ResetPassword");
-    vi.mocked(deleteResetPasswordToken).mockResolvedValueOnce({ ok: false, status: 429 });
+    vi.mocked(deleteResetPasswordToken).mockRejectedValueOnce(new RateLimitedError(30));
 
     await act(async () => {
         render(<RevokeResetPasswordTokenView />);
     });
 
-    expect(mockCreateError).toHaveBeenCalledWith("You have made too many requests");
+    expect(mockCreateError).toHaveBeenCalledWith("You have made too many requests, try again in {{count}} seconds:30");
 });
 
 it("reports a successful revocation", async () => {
@@ -102,6 +106,17 @@ it("reports a failed revocation", async () => {
     expect(mockCreateError).toHaveBeenCalledWith("Failed to revoke the Token");
 });
 
+it("reports a failed revocation when the request throws", async () => {
+    const { deleteResetPasswordToken } = await import("@services/ResetPassword");
+    vi.mocked(deleteResetPasswordToken).mockRejectedValueOnce(new Error("network error"));
+
+    await act(async () => {
+        render(<RevokeResetPasswordTokenView />);
+    });
+
+    expect(mockCreateError).toHaveBeenCalledWith("Failed to revoke the Token");
+});
+
 it("navigates back to the index route after the delay", async () => {
     vi.useFakeTimers();
 

web/src/views/Revoke/RevokeResetPasswordTokenView.tsx

@@ -10,6 +10,7 @@ import { IndexRoute } from "@constants/Routes";
 import { useNotifications } from "@contexts/NotificationsContext";
 import { useToken } from "@hooks/Revoke";
 import { useRouterNavigate } from "@hooks/RouterNavigate";
+import { RateLimitedError } from "@services/RateLimit";
 import { deleteResetPasswordToken } from "@services/ResetPassword";
 import LoadingPage from "@views/LoadingPage/LoadingPage";
 
@@ -29,14 +30,25 @@ const RevokeResetPasswordTokenView = function () {
     const handleRevoke = useCallback(async () => {
         if (!token) return;
 
-        const { ok, status } = await deleteResetPasswordToken(token);
+        try {
+            const { ok } = await deleteResetPasswordToken(token);
 
-        if (ok) {
+            if (ok) {
-            createSuccessNotification(translate("Successfully revoked the Token"));
+                createSuccessNotification(translate("Successfully revoked the Token"));
-        } else if (status === 429) {
+            } else {
-            createErrorNotification(translate("You have made too many requests"));
+                createErrorNotification(translate("Failed to revoke the Token"));
-        } else {
+            }
-            createErrorNotification(translate("Failed to revoke the Token"));
+        } catch (err) {
+            if (err instanceof RateLimitedError) {
+                createErrorNotification(
+                    translate("You have made too many requests, try again in {{count}} seconds", {
+                        count: err.retryAfter,
+                    }),
+                );
+            } else {
+                console.error(err);
+                createErrorNotification(translate("Failed to revoke the Token"));
+            }
         }
 
         handleRedirect();

web/src/views/Settings/Common/IdentityVerificationDialog.test.tsx

@@ -4,6 +4,7 @@
 
 import { act, fireEvent, render, screen, waitFor } from "@testing-library/react";
 
+import { RateLimitedError } from "@services/RateLimit";
 import {
     deleteUserSessionElevation,
     generateUserSessionElevation,
@@ -16,7 +17,10 @@ const mocks = vi.hoisted(() => ({
 }));
 
 vi.mock("react-i18next", () => ({
-    useTranslation: () => ({ t: (key: string) => key }),
+    useTranslation: () => ({
+        t: (key: string, options?: { count?: number }) =>
+            options?.count === undefined ? key : `${key}:${options.count}`,
+    }),
 }));
 
 vi.mock("@contexts/NotificationsContext", () => ({
@@ -86,8 +90,8 @@ function clickCancel() {
 beforeEach(() => {
     vi.clearAllMocks();
     vi.spyOn(console, "error").mockImplementation(() => {});
-    generateMock.mockResolvedValue({ delete_id: "delete-id" } as any);
+    generateMock.mockResolvedValue({ delete_id: "delete-id" });
-    verifyMock.mockResolvedValue(true as any);
+    verifyMock.mockResolvedValue(true);
     deleteMock.mockResolvedValue(undefined as any);
 });
 
@@ -162,6 +166,19 @@ describe("code generation failures", () => {
         expect(handleClosed).toHaveBeenCalledWith(false);
     });
 
+    it("notifies and closes when generation is rate limited", async () => {
+        generateMock.mockRejectedValue(new RateLimitedError(30));
+
+        const { handleClosed } = renderDialog();
+
+        await waitFor(() =>
+            expect(mocks.createErrorNotification).toHaveBeenCalledWith(
+                "You have made too many requests, try again in {{count}} seconds:30",
+            ),
+        );
+        expect(handleClosed).toHaveBeenCalledWith(false);
+    });
+
     it("notifies and closes when generation returns nothing", async () => {
         generateMock.mockResolvedValue(null as any);
 
@@ -239,7 +256,7 @@ describe("verification", () => {
     });
 
     it("notifies, clears and refocuses the field on a wrong code", async () => {
-        verifyMock.mockResolvedValue(false as any);
+        verifyMock.mockResolvedValue(false);
 
         renderDialog();
         await screen.findByText("Verify");
@@ -257,6 +274,44 @@ describe("verification", () => {
         expect(getCode()).toHaveFocus();
     });
 
+    it("notifies and disables the controls until the retry period elapses when rate limited", async () => {
+        vi.useFakeTimers({ shouldAdvanceTime: true });
+
+        try {
+            verifyMock.mockRejectedValue(new RateLimitedError(30));
+
+            const { handleClosed } = renderDialog();
+            await screen.findByText("Verify");
+
+            fireEvent.change(getCode(), { target: { value: "123456" } });
+            clickVerify();
+
+            await waitFor(() =>
+                expect(mocks.createErrorNotification).toHaveBeenCalledWith("You have made too many requests"),
+            );
+            expect(getCode()).toHaveValue("");
+            expect(getCode()).toBeDisabled();
+            expect(document.getElementById("dialog-verify")).toBeDisabled();
+            expect(handleClosed).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
+
+            act(() => {
+                document.getElementById("dialog-cancel")!.focus();
+            });
+
+            expect(getCode()).not.toHaveFocus();
+
+            await act(async () => {
+                await vi.advanceTimersByTimeAsync(30000);
+            });
+
+            await waitFor(() => expect(getCode()).not.toBeDisabled());
+            expect(getCode()).toHaveFocus();
+            expect(document.getElementById("dialog-verify")).not.toBeDisabled();
+        } finally {
+            vi.useRealTimers();
+        }
+    });
+
     it("notifies, clears and re-enables the field when verification fails", async () => {
         verifyMock.mockRejectedValue(new Error("Network Error"));
 
@@ -277,7 +332,7 @@ describe("verification", () => {
     });
 
     it("clears the error once the user retypes", async () => {
-        verifyMock.mockResolvedValue(false as any);
+        verifyMock.mockResolvedValue(false);
 
         renderDialog();
         await screen.findByText("Verify");

web/src/views/Settings/Common/IdentityVerificationDialog.tsx

@@ -7,6 +7,7 @@ import { ChangeEvent, KeyboardEvent, useCallback, useEffect, useMemo, useRef, us
 import { useTranslation } from "react-i18next";
 
 import OneTimeCodeTextField from "@components/OneTimeCodeTextField";
+import RateLimitCountdown from "@components/RateLimitCountdown";
 import SuccessIcon from "@components/SuccessIcon";
 import { Button } from "@components/UI/Button";
 import {
@@ -19,6 +20,8 @@ import {
 } from "@components/UI/Dialog";
 import { Spinner } from "@components/UI/Spinner";
 import { useNotifications } from "@contexts/NotificationsContext";
+import { useRateLimit } from "@hooks/RateLimit";
+import { RateLimitedError } from "@services/RateLimit";
 import {
     UserSessionElevation,
     deleteUserSessionElevation,
@@ -46,6 +49,7 @@ const IdentityVerificationDialog = function (props: Props) {
     const [codeDelete, setCodeDelete] = useState<string>();
     const [codeError, setCodeError] = useState(false);
     const [ready, setReady] = useState(false);
+    const { clear: clearRateLimit, limited: rateLimited, secondsRemaining, trigger: triggerRateLimit } = useRateLimit();
     const codeRef = useRef<HTMLInputElement>(null);
     const timeoutSuccessRef = useRef<null | ReturnType<typeof setTimeout>>(null);
     const attemptRef = useRef(0);
@@ -61,6 +65,14 @@ const IdentityVerificationDialog = function (props: Props) {
 
     const open = useMemo(() => ready && !closing && opening && !!elevation, [ready, closing, opening, elevation]);
 
+    const wasRateLimitedRef = useRef(rateLimited);
+
+    useEffect(() => {
+        if (wasRateLimitedRef.current && !rateLimited && open) codeRef.current?.focus();
+
+        wasRateLimitedRef.current = rateLimited;
+    }, [open, rateLimited]);
+
     const handleClose = useCallback(
         (ok: boolean) => {
             setCodeInput("");
@@ -70,9 +82,10 @@ const IdentityVerificationDialog = function (props: Props) {
             setSuccess(false);
             setClosing(false);
             setReady(false);
+            clearRateLimit();
             handleClosed(ok);
         },
-        [handleClosed],
+        [clearRateLimit, handleClosed],
     );
 
     const handleDelete = useCallback(async () => {
@@ -114,25 +127,36 @@ const IdentityVerificationDialog = function (props: Props) {
         codeRef.current?.focus();
     }, [createErrorNotification, translate]);
 
+    const handleRateLimited = useCallback(
+        (retryAfter: number) => {
+            setCodeInput("");
+            setLoading(false);
+            triggerRateLimit(retryAfter);
+
+            createErrorNotification(translate("You have made too many requests", { ns: "portal" }));
+        },
+        [createErrorNotification, translate, triggerRateLimit],
+    );
+
     const handleSubmit = useCallback(async () => {
-        if (codeInput === "") return;
+        if (codeInput === "" || rateLimited) return;
 
         setLoading(true);
         const attempt = ++attemptRef.current;
-        const success = await verifyUserSessionElevation(codeInput).catch((err) => {
+        const result = await verifyUserSessionElevation(codeInput).catch((err: unknown) => err);
-            console.error(err);
-
-            return false;
-        });
 
         if (attempt !== attemptRef.current) return;
 
-        if (success) {
+        if (result instanceof RateLimitedError) {
+            handleRateLimited(result.retryAfter);
+        } else if (result === true) {
             handleSuccess();
         } else {
+            if (result instanceof Error) console.error(result);
+
             handleFailure();
         }
-    }, [codeInput, handleFailure, handleSuccess]);
+    }, [codeInput, handleFailure, handleRateLimited, handleSuccess, rateLimited]);
 
     const handleSubmitKeyDown = useCallback(
         async (event: KeyboardEvent<HTMLDivElement>) => {
@@ -163,8 +187,18 @@ const IdentityVerificationDialog = function (props: Props) {
                 setReady(true);
             })
             .catch((error) => {
-                console.error(error);
+                if (error instanceof RateLimitedError) {
-                createErrorNotification(translate("Failed to generate the One-Time Code. Please try again later."));
+                    createErrorNotification(
+                        translate("You have made too many requests, try again in {{count}} seconds", {
+                            count: error.retryAfter,
+                            ns: "portal",
+                        }),
+                    );
+                } else {
+                    console.error(error);
+                    createErrorNotification(translate("Failed to generate the One-Time Code. Please try again later."));
+                }
+
                 handleClose(false);
             });
     }, [closing, opening, elevation, ready, translate, handleClose, handleOpened, createErrorNotification]);
@@ -206,11 +240,12 @@ const IdentityVerificationDialog = function (props: Props) {
                                 value={codeInput}
                                 onChange={handleChange}
                                 error={codeError}
-                                disabled={loading}
+                                disabled={loading || rateLimited}
                                 inputRef={codeRef}
                                 onKeyDown={handleSubmitKeyDown}
                             />
                         </div>
+                        <RateLimitCountdown secondsRemaining={secondsRemaining} />
                     </div>
                 )}
                 {success ? null : (
@@ -228,7 +263,7 @@ const IdentityVerificationDialog = function (props: Props) {
                             id={"dialog-verify"}
                             variant={"ghost"}
                             color={"primary"}
-                            disabled={loading}
+                            disabled={loading || rateLimited}
                             onClick={handleSubmit}
                         >
                             {loading ? <Spinner size={20} /> : null}

web/src/views/Settings/Common/SecondFactorMethodMobilePush.test.tsx

@@ -9,6 +9,7 @@ import {
     completePushNotificationSignIn,
     initiateDuoDeviceSelectionProcess,
 } from "@services/PushNotification";
+import { RateLimitedError } from "@services/RateLimit";
 import SecondFactorMethodMobilePush from "@views/Settings/Common/SecondFactorMethodMobilePush";
 
 const mocks = vi.hoisted(() => ({
@@ -53,13 +54,11 @@ const initiateSelectionMock = vi.mocked(initiateDuoDeviceSelectionProcess);
 const completeSelectionMock = vi.mocked(completeDuoDeviceSelectionProcess);
 
 const authResponse = {
-    data: {
+    devices: [
-        devices: [
+        { capabilities: ["push", "sms"], device: "device-a", display_name: "Phone" },
-            { capabilities: ["push", "sms"], device: "device-a", display_name: "Phone" },
+        { capabilities: ["push"], device: "device-b", display_name: "Tablet" },
-            { capabilities: ["push"], device: "device-b", display_name: "Tablet" },
+    ],
-        ],
+    result: "auth",
-        result: "auth",
-    },
 };
 
 function renderPush(onSecondFactorSuccess = vi.fn()) {
@@ -72,7 +71,7 @@ function renderPush(onSecondFactorSuccess = vi.fn()) {
 beforeEach(() => {
     vi.clearAllMocks();
     vi.spyOn(console, "error").mockImplementation(() => {});
-    completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue(null as any);
+    completeSignInMock.mockRejectedValue(new Error("boom"));
     initiateSelectionMock.mockResolvedValue({} as any);
     completeSelectionMock.mockResolvedValue(undefined as any);
 });
@@ -103,7 +102,7 @@ describe("rendering", () => {
 
 describe("push response handling", () => {
     it("reports success and hides the device link", async () => {
-        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({ data: { result: "allow" } } as any);
+        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({ result: "allow" } as any);
 
         const { onSecondFactorSuccess } = renderPush();
 
@@ -128,7 +127,7 @@ describe("push response handling", () => {
     });
 
     it("fails when the response requires enrollment", async () => {
-        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({ data: { result: "enroll" } } as any);
+        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({ result: "enroll" } as any);
 
         renderPush();
 
@@ -137,7 +136,7 @@ describe("push response handling", () => {
     });
 
     it("fails when the Duo policy denies the request", async () => {
-        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({ data: { result: "deny" } } as any);
+        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({ result: "deny" } as any);
 
         renderPush();
 
@@ -147,26 +146,27 @@ describe("push response handling", () => {
         expect(screen.getByTestId("failure-icon")).toBeInTheDocument();
     });
 
-    it("fails when the response is missing", async () => {
+    it("reports success when the response carries no data", async () => {
-        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue(null as any);
+        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue(undefined);
 
-        renderPush();
+        const { onSecondFactorSuccess } = renderPush();
 
-        await waitFor(() =>
+        await waitFor(() => expect(onSecondFactorSuccess).toHaveBeenCalled());
-            expect(mocks.createErrorNotification).toHaveBeenCalledWith("There was an issue completing sign in process"),
+        expect(mocks.createErrorNotification).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
-        );
+        expect(screen.queryByTestId("failure-icon")).not.toBeInTheDocument();
-        expect(screen.getByTestId("failure-icon")).toBeInTheDocument();
+        expect(screen.queryByRole("button", { name: "Select a Device" })).not.toBeInTheDocument();
     });
 
-    it("fails when the response carries no data", async () => {
+    it("fails when the response carries an empty payload", async () => {
         completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({} as any);
 
-        renderPush();
+        const { onSecondFactorSuccess } = renderPush();
 
         await waitFor(() =>
             expect(mocks.createErrorNotification).toHaveBeenCalledWith("There was an issue completing sign in process"),
         );
         expect(screen.getByTestId("failure-icon")).toBeInTheDocument();
+        expect(onSecondFactorSuccess).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
     });
 
     it("fails when the push request throws", async () => {
@@ -182,7 +182,7 @@ describe("push response handling", () => {
 
     it("reports rate limiting and recovers after the retry window", async () => {
         vi.useFakeTimers();
-        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({ limited: true, retryAfter: 3 } as any);
+        completeSignInMock.mockRejectedValue(new RateLimitedError(3));
 
         renderPush();
 
@@ -198,20 +198,8 @@ describe("push response handling", () => {
         expect(screen.getByTestId("failure-icon")).toBeInTheDocument();
     });
 
-    it("treats a limited response carrying data as rate limited", async () => {
-        vi.useFakeTimers();
-        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({ data: { result: "allow" }, limited: true, retryAfter: 1 } as any);
-
-        const { onSecondFactorSuccess } = renderPush();
-
-        await vi.waitFor(() =>
-            expect(mocks.createErrorNotification).toHaveBeenCalledWith("You have made too many requests"),
-        );
-        expect(onSecondFactorSuccess).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
-    });
-
     it("retries the push from the failure state", async () => {
-        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue(null as any);
+        completeSignInMock.mockRejectedValue(new Error("boom"));
 
         renderPush();
 
@@ -314,6 +302,40 @@ describe("device selection", () => {
         await waitFor(() => expect(completeSignInMock).toHaveBeenCalledTimes(2));
     });
 
+    it("clears the rate limit when a device is selected during the retry window", async () => {
+        vi.useFakeTimers();
+        completeSignInMock.mockRejectedValueOnce(new RateLimitedError(3));
+        initiateSelectionMock.mockResolvedValue(authResponse as any);
+
+        const { onSecondFactorSuccess } = renderPush();
+
+        await vi.waitFor(() =>
+            expect(mocks.createErrorNotification).toHaveBeenCalledWith("You have made too many requests"),
+        );
+
+        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({ result: "allow" } as any);
+
+        await act(async () => {
+            fireEvent.click(screen.getByRole("button", { name: "Select a Device" }));
+        });
+
+        await vi.waitFor(() => expect(screen.getByTestId("device-selection")).toBeInTheDocument());
+
+        await act(async () => {
+            fireEvent.click(screen.getByTestId("device-select"));
+        });
+
+        await vi.waitFor(() => expect(onSecondFactorSuccess).toHaveBeenCalled());
+        expect(document.getElementById("rate-limit-countdown")).not.toBeInTheDocument();
+
+        await act(async () => {
+            await vi.advanceTimersByTimeAsync(3000);
+        });
+
+        expect(screen.queryByTestId("failure-icon")).not.toBeInTheDocument();
+        expect(screen.queryByRole("button", { name: "Select a Device" })).not.toBeInTheDocument();
+    });
+
     it("logs failures updating the preferred Duo device", async () => {
         completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue(authResponse as any);
         completeSelectionMock.mockRejectedValue(new Error("boom"));
@@ -335,7 +357,7 @@ describe("device selection", () => {
 describe("cleanup", () => {
     it("clears the rate limit timer on unmount", async () => {
         vi.useFakeTimers();
-        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({ limited: true, retryAfter: 3 } as any);
+        completeSignInMock.mockRejectedValue(new RateLimitedError(3));
 
         const setTimeoutSpy = vi.spyOn(globalThis, "setTimeout");
 
@@ -345,7 +367,6 @@ describe("cleanup", () => {
             expect(mocks.createErrorNotification).toHaveBeenCalledWith("You have made too many requests"),
         );
 
-        // Identify the component's own rate limit timer rather than any timer React happens to clear.
         const index = setTimeoutSpy.mock.calls.findIndex(([, timeout]) => timeout === 3000);
 
         expect(index).toBeGreaterThanOrEqual(0);

web/src/views/Settings/Common/SecondFactorMethodMobilePush.tsx

@@ -2,20 +2,24 @@
 //
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
-import { Fragment, ReactNode, useCallback, useEffect, useReducer, useRef } from "react";
+import { Fragment, ReactNode, useCallback, useEffect, useReducer } from "react";
 
 import { useTranslation } from "react-i18next";
 
 import FailureIcon from "@components/FailureIcon";
 import PushNotificationIcon from "@components/PushNotificationIcon";
+import RateLimitCountdown from "@components/RateLimitCountdown";
 import { Button } from "@components/UI/Button";
 import { useNotifications } from "@contexts/NotificationsContext";
+import { useRateLimit } from "@hooks/RateLimit";
 import {
     DuoDevicePostRequest,
+    DuoSignInResponse,
     completeDuoDeviceSelectionProcess,
     completePushNotificationSignIn,
     initiateDuoDeviceSelectionProcess,
 } from "@services/PushNotification";
+import { RateLimitedError } from "@services/RateLimit";
 import DeviceSelectionContainer, {
     SelectableDevice,
     SelectedDevice,
@@ -30,6 +34,7 @@ type Action =
     | { type: "pushFailure" }
     | { type: "pushSuccess" }
     | { type: "rateLimited" }
+    | { type: "rateLimitExpired" }
     | { type: "selectDevices"; devices: SelectableDevice[] }
     | { type: "setDevices"; devices: SelectableDevice[] }
     | { type: "setStatus"; status: ComponentState["status"] }
@@ -56,6 +61,8 @@ function reducer(state: ComponentState, action: Action): ComponentState {
             return { ...state, devices: action.devices, status: "selecting" };
         case "rateLimited":
             return { ...state, status: "rate_limited" };
+        case "rateLimitExpired":
+            return state.status === "rate_limited" ? { ...state, status: "failure" } : state;
         default:
             return state;
     }
@@ -72,73 +79,55 @@ const SecondFactorMethodMobilePush = function (props: Props) {
 
     const { createErrorNotification } = useNotifications();
 
-    const timeoutRateLimitRef = useRef<null | ReturnType<typeof setTimeout>>(null);
+    const {
-
+        clear: clearRateLimit,
-    useEffect(() => {
+        secondsRemaining,
-        return () => {
+        trigger: triggerRateLimit,
-            if (timeoutRateLimitRef.current !== null) {
+    } = useRateLimit(() => dispatch({ type: "rateLimitExpired" }));
-                clearTimeout(timeoutRateLimitRef.current);
-                timeoutRateLimitRef.current = null;
-            }
-        };
-    }, []);
 
     const handleRateLimited = useCallback(
         (retryAfter: number) => {
-            if (timeoutRateLimitRef.current) {
-                clearTimeout(timeoutRateLimitRef.current);
-            }
-
             dispatch({ type: "rateLimited" });
 
             createErrorNotification(translate("You have made too many requests"));
 
-            timeoutRateLimitRef.current = setTimeout(() => {
+            triggerRateLimit(retryAfter);
-                dispatch({ type: "pushFailure" });
-                timeoutRateLimitRef.current = null;
-            }, retryAfter * 1000);
         },
-        [createErrorNotification, translate],
+        [createErrorNotification, translate, triggerRateLimit],
     );
 
     const handlePushResponse = useCallback(
-        (res: any) => {
+        (res: DuoSignInResponse | undefined) => {
-            if (res) {
+            if (res !== undefined && typeof res.result !== "string") {
-                if (res.data && !res.limited) {
-                    switch (res.data.result) {
-                        case "auth": {
-                            const selectableDevices = [] as SelectableDevice[];
-                            for (const d of res.data.devices) {
-                                selectableDevices.push({ id: d.device, methods: d.capabilities, name: d.display_name });
-                            }
-                            dispatch({ devices: selectableDevices, type: "selectDevices" });
-                            break;
-                        }
-                        case "enroll":
-                            createErrorNotification(translate("No compatible device found"));
-                            dispatch({ type: "pushFailure" });
-                            break;
-                        case "deny":
-                            createErrorNotification(translate("Device selection was denied by Duo policy"));
-                            dispatch({ type: "pushFailure" });
-                            break;
-                        default:
-                            dispatch({ type: "pushSuccess" });
-                            props.onSecondFactorSuccess();
-                            break;
-                    }
-                } else if (res.limited) {
-                    handleRateLimited(res.retryAfter);
-                } else {
-                    createErrorNotification(translate("There was an issue completing sign in process"));
-                    dispatch({ type: "pushFailure" });
-                }
-            } else {
                 createErrorNotification(translate("There was an issue completing sign in process"));
                 dispatch({ type: "pushFailure" });
+                return;
+            }
+
+            switch (res?.result) {
+                case "auth": {
+                    const selectableDevices = [] as SelectableDevice[];
+                    for (const d of res.devices) {
+                        selectableDevices.push({ id: d.device, methods: d.capabilities, name: d.display_name });
+                    }
+                    dispatch({ devices: selectableDevices, type: "selectDevices" });
+                    break;
+                }
+                case "enroll":
+                    createErrorNotification(translate("No compatible device found"));
+                    dispatch({ type: "pushFailure" });
+                    break;
+                case "deny":
+                    createErrorNotification(translate("Device selection was denied by Duo policy"));
+                    dispatch({ type: "pushFailure" });
+                    break;
+                default:
+                    dispatch({ type: "pushSuccess" });
+                    props.onSecondFactorSuccess();
+                    break;
             }
         },
-        [createErrorNotification, handleRateLimited, props, translate],
+        [createErrorNotification, props, translate],
     );
 
     const handleSelectDevice = useCallback(async () => {
@@ -177,23 +166,29 @@ const SecondFactorMethodMobilePush = function (props: Props) {
             const res = await completePushNotificationSignIn();
             handlePushResponse(res);
         } catch (err) {
+            if (err instanceof RateLimitedError) {
+                handleRateLimited(err.retryAfter);
+                return;
+            }
+
             console.error(err);
             createErrorNotification(translate("There was an issue completing sign in process"));
             dispatch({ type: "pushFailure" });
         }
-    }, [handlePushResponse, createErrorNotification, translate]);
+    }, [handlePushResponse, handleRateLimited, createErrorNotification, translate]);
 
     const updateDuoDevice = useCallback(
         async function (device: DuoDevicePostRequest) {
             try {
                 await completeDuoDeviceSelectionProcess(device);
+                clearRateLimit();
                 dispatch({ type: "startPush" });
             } catch (err) {
                 console.error(err);
                 console.error(new Error(translate("There was an issue updating preferred Duo device")));
             }
         },
-        [translate],
+        [clearRateLimit, translate],
     );
 
     const handleDuoDeviceSelected = useCallback(
@@ -232,6 +227,7 @@ const SecondFactorMethodMobilePush = function (props: Props) {
         <Fragment>
             <div className="h-[120px]">
                 <div className="inline-block size-17.5">{icon}</div>
+                <RateLimitCountdown secondsRemaining={secondsRemaining} />
                 <div className={state.status === "failure" ? "" : "hidden"}>
                     <Button variant={"ghost"} color={"secondary"} onClick={() => dispatch({ type: "startPush" })}>
                         {translate("Retry")}

web/src/views/Settings/Common/SecondFactorMethodOneTimePassword.test.tsx

@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@
 import { act, fireEvent, render, screen, waitFor } from "@testing-library/react";
 
 import { completeTOTPSignIn } from "@services/OneTimePassword";
+import { RateLimitedError } from "@services/RateLimit";
 import SecondFactorMethodOneTimePassword from "@views/Settings/Common/SecondFactorMethodOneTimePassword";
 
 const mocks = vi.hoisted(() => ({
@@ -66,7 +67,7 @@ beforeEach(() => {
     vi.spyOn(console, "error").mockImplementation(() => {});
     mocks.config = { digits: 6, period: 30 };
     mocks.configError = null;
-    completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({} as any);
+    completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({ redirect: "https://example.com" });
 });
 
 afterEach(() => {
@@ -133,34 +134,33 @@ describe("sign in", () => {
         await waitFor(() => expect(screen.getByTestId("otp-dial")).toHaveAttribute("data-passcode", ""));
     });
 
-    it("notifies and fails when the code is rejected", async () => {
+    it("succeeds when the response carries no data", async () => {
-        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue(null as any);
+        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue(undefined);
 
         const { onSecondFactorSuccess } = renderMethod();
 
         fireEvent.click(screen.getByTestId("dial-full"));
 
-        await waitFor(() =>
+        await waitFor(() => expect(onSecondFactorSuccess).toHaveBeenCalled());
-            expect(mocks.createErrorNotification).toHaveBeenCalledWith("The One-Time Password might be wrong"),
+        expect(screen.getByTestId("otp-dial")).toHaveAttribute("data-state", "2");
-        );
-        await waitFor(() => expect(screen.getByTestId("otp-dial")).toHaveAttribute("data-state", "3"));
-        expect(onSecondFactorSuccess).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
     });
 
     it("fails when the request throws", async () => {
         completeSignInMock.mockRejectedValue(new Error("boom"));
 
-        renderMethod();
+        const { onSecondFactorSuccess } = renderMethod();
 
         fireEvent.click(screen.getByTestId("dial-full"));
 
         await waitFor(() => expect(screen.getByTestId("otp-dial")).toHaveAttribute("data-state", "3"));
         expect(console.error).toHaveBeenCalled();
+        expect(mocks.createErrorNotification).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
+        expect(onSecondFactorSuccess).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
     });
 
     it("reports rate limiting and recovers after the retry window", async () => {
         vi.useFakeTimers();
-        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({ limited: true, retryAfter: 4 } as any);
+        completeSignInMock.mockRejectedValue(new RateLimitedError(4));
 
         renderMethod();
 
@@ -180,7 +180,7 @@ describe("sign in", () => {
 
     it("ignores new submissions while rate limited", async () => {
         vi.useFakeTimers();
-        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({ limited: true, retryAfter: 4 } as any);
+        completeSignInMock.mockRejectedValue(new RateLimitedError(4));
 
         renderMethod();
 
@@ -205,7 +205,7 @@ describe("sign in", () => {
 
         expect(completeSignInMock).toHaveBeenCalledTimes(1);
 
-        resolve({});
+        resolve(undefined);
         await waitFor(() => expect(screen.getByTestId("otp-dial")).toHaveAttribute("data-state", "2"));
     });
 
@@ -222,7 +222,7 @@ describe("sign in", () => {
 
     it("clears the rate limit timer on unmount", async () => {
         vi.useFakeTimers();
-        completeSignInMock.mockResolvedValue({ limited: true, retryAfter: 4 } as any);
+        completeSignInMock.mockRejectedValue(new RateLimitedError(4));
 
         const setTimeoutSpy = vi.spyOn(globalThis, "setTimeout");
 
@@ -231,7 +231,6 @@ describe("sign in", () => {
         fireEvent.click(screen.getByTestId("dial-full"));
         await vi.waitFor(() => expect(screen.getByTestId("otp-dial")).toHaveAttribute("data-state", "4"));
 
-        // Identify the component's own rate limit timer rather than any timer React happens to clear.
         const index = setTimeoutSpy.mock.calls.findIndex(([, timeout]) => timeout === 4000);
 
         expect(index).toBeGreaterThanOrEqual(0);

web/src/views/Settings/Common/SecondFactorMethodOneTimePassword.tsx

@@ -2,13 +2,16 @@
 //
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
-import { Fragment, useCallback, useEffect, useReducer, useRef } from "react";
+import { Fragment, useCallback, useEffect, useReducer } from "react";
 
 import { useTranslation } from "react-i18next";
 
+import RateLimitCountdown from "@components/RateLimitCountdown";
 import { useNotifications } from "@contexts/NotificationsContext";
+import { useRateLimit } from "@hooks/RateLimit";
 import { useUserInfoTOTPConfiguration } from "@hooks/UserInfoTOTPConfiguration";
 import { completeTOTPSignIn } from "@services/OneTimePassword";
+import { RateLimitedError } from "@services/RateLimit";
 import LoadingPage from "@views/LoadingPage/LoadingPage";
 import OTPDial, { State } from "@views/LoginPortal/SecondFactor/OTPDial";
 
@@ -49,16 +52,9 @@ const SecondFactorMethodOneTimePassword = function (props: Props) {
 
     const [config, fetchConfig, , fetchConfigError] = useUserInfoTOTPConfiguration();
 
-    const timeoutRateLimitRef = useRef<null | ReturnType<typeof setTimeout>>(null);
+    const { secondsRemaining, trigger: triggerRateLimit } = useRateLimit(() =>
-
+        dispatch({ status: State.Idle, type: "setStatus" }),
-    useEffect(() => {
+    );
-        return () => {
-            if (timeoutRateLimitRef.current !== null) {
-                clearTimeout(timeoutRateLimitRef.current);
-                timeoutRateLimitRef.current = null;
-            }
-        };
-    }, []);
 
     useEffect(() => {
         if (fetchConfigError) {
@@ -73,20 +69,13 @@ const SecondFactorMethodOneTimePassword = function (props: Props) {
 
     const handleRateLimited = useCallback(
         (retryAfter: number) => {
-            if (timeoutRateLimitRef.current) {
-                clearTimeout(timeoutRateLimitRef.current);
-            }
-
             dispatch({ status: State.RateLimited, type: "setStatus" });
 
             createErrorNotification(translate("You have made too many requests", { ns: "portal" }));
 
-            timeoutRateLimitRef.current = setTimeout(() => {
+            triggerRateLimit(retryAfter);
-                dispatch({ status: State.Idle, type: "setStatus" });
-                timeoutRateLimitRef.current = null;
-            }, retryAfter * 1000);
         },
-        [createErrorNotification, translate],
+        [createErrorNotification, translate, triggerRateLimit],
     );
 
     const handleSignIn = useCallback(
@@ -102,27 +91,22 @@ const SecondFactorMethodOneTimePassword = function (props: Props) {
             try {
                 dispatch({ status: State.InProgress, type: "setStatus" });
 
-                const res = await completeTOTPSignIn(passcodeStr);
+                await completeTOTPSignIn(passcodeStr);
 
-                if (res) {
+                dispatch({ status: State.Success, type: "setStatus" });
-                    if (res.limited) {
+                onSecondFactorSuccess();
-                        handleRateLimited(res.retryAfter);
+            } catch (err) {
-                    } else {
+                if (err instanceof RateLimitedError) {
-                        dispatch({ status: State.Success, type: "setStatus" });
+                    handleRateLimited(err.retryAfter);
-                        onSecondFactorSuccess();
-                    }
                 } else {
-                    createErrorNotification(translate("The One-Time Password might be wrong", { ns: "portal" }));
+                    console.error(err);
                     dispatch({ status: State.Failure, type: "setStatus" });
                 }
-            } catch (err) {
-                console.error(err);
-                dispatch({ status: State.Failure, type: "setStatus" });
             }
 
             dispatch({ passcode: "", type: "setPasscode" });
         },
-        [config, handleRateLimited, createErrorNotification, translate, onSecondFactorSuccess],
+        [config, handleRateLimited, onSecondFactorSuccess],
     );
 
     const handlePasscodeChange = useCallback(
@@ -153,6 +137,7 @@ const SecondFactorMethodOneTimePassword = function (props: Props) {
             ) : (
                 <LoadingPage />
             )}
+            <RateLimitCountdown secondsRemaining={secondsRemaining} />
         </Fragment>
     );
 };