diff --git a/crates/capi/src/codecs.rs b/crates/capi/src/codecs.rs
index 8433bf3ba..ce4f7d683 100644
--- a/crates/capi/src/codecs.rs
+++ b/crates/capi/src/codecs.rs
@@ -43,7 +43,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn PyCodec_Register(search_function: *mut PyObject) -> c_i
 #[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn PyCodec_Unregister(search_function: *mut PyObject) -> c_int {
     with_vm(|vm| {
-        let search_function = unsafe { &*search_function }.to_owned();
+        let search_function = unsafe { &*search_function };
         vm.state.codec_registry.unregister(search_function);
     })
 }
diff --git a/crates/capi/src/dictobject.rs b/crates/capi/src/dictobject.rs
index ed29c6934..b0c3d05ba 100644
--- a/crates/capi/src/dictobject.rs
+++ b/crates/capi/src/dictobject.rs
@@ -294,7 +294,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn PyDict_MergeFromSeq2(
 ) -> c_int {
     with_vm(|vm| {
         let dict = unsafe { &*dict }.try_downcast_ref::<PyDict>(vm)?;
-        let seq2 = unsafe { &*seq2 }.to_owned();
+        let seq2 = unsafe { &*seq2 };
         dict.merge_from_seq2(seq2, override_ != 0, vm)
     })
 }
diff --git a/crates/capi/src/object.rs b/crates/capi/src/object.rs
index 641dbe3ef..b45b026e2 100644
--- a/crates/capi/src/object.rs
+++ b/crates/capi/src/object.rs
@@ -109,7 +109,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn PyObject_GetOptionalAttr(
         }
         let obj = unsafe { &*obj };
         let name = unsafe { &*name }.try_downcast_ref::<PyStr>(vm)?;
-        if let Some(attr) = vm.get_attribute_opt(obj.to_owned(), name)? {
+        if let Some(attr) = vm.get_attribute_opt(obj, name)? {
             unsafe {
                 *result = attr.into_raw().as_ptr();
             }
@@ -132,7 +132,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString(
         }
         let obj = unsafe { &*obj };
         let name = unsafe { attr_name.try_as_str(vm) }?;
-        if let Some(attr) = vm.get_attribute_opt(obj.to_owned(), name)? {
+        if let Some(attr) = vm.get_attribute_opt(obj, name)? {
             unsafe {
                 *result = attr.into_raw().as_ptr();
             }
@@ -217,7 +217,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn PyObject_HasAttrWithError(
     with_vm(|vm| {
         let obj = unsafe { &*obj };
         let name = unsafe { &*attr_name }.try_downcast_ref::<PyStr>(vm)?;
-        Ok(vm.get_attribute_opt(obj.to_owned(), name)?.is_some())
+        Ok(vm.get_attribute_opt(obj, name)?.is_some())
     })
 }
 
@@ -272,7 +272,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn PyObject_HasAttrStringWithError(
     with_vm(|vm| {
         let obj = unsafe { &*obj };
         let name = unsafe { attr_name.try_as_str(vm) }?;
-        Ok(vm.get_attribute_opt(obj.to_owned(), name)?.is_some())
+        Ok(vm.get_attribute_opt(obj, name)?.is_some())
     })
 }
 
diff --git a/crates/capi/src/pyerrors.rs b/crates/capi/src/pyerrors.rs
index 714cf549e..034c21cff 100644
--- a/crates/capi/src/pyerrors.rs
+++ b/crates/capi/src/pyerrors.rs
@@ -160,7 +160,7 @@ pub extern "C" fn PyErr_PrintEx(_set_sys_last_vars: c_int) {
             .take_raised_exception()
             .expect("No exception set in PyErr_PrintEx");
 
-        vm.print_exception(exception);
+        vm.print_exception(&exception);
     })
 }
 
@@ -169,8 +169,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn PyErr_DisplayException(exc: *mut PyObject) {
     with_vm(|vm| {
         let exception = unsafe { &*exc }
             .downcast_ref::<PyBaseException>()
-            .expect("PyErr_DisplayException exc must be an exception instance")
-            .to_owned();
+            .expect("PyErr_DisplayException exc must be an exception instance");
 
         vm.print_exception(exception);
     })
diff --git a/crates/stdlib/src/_asyncio.rs b/crates/stdlib/src/_asyncio.rs
index 47509b64b..fc758ffdd 100644
--- a/crates/stdlib/src/_asyncio.rs
+++ b/crates/stdlib/src/_asyncio.rs
@@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ pub(crate) mod _asyncio {
         // Initialize module-level state
         let weakref_module = vm.import("weakref", 0)?;
         let weak_set_class = vm
-            .get_attribute_opt(weakref_module, vm.ctx.intern_str("WeakSet"))?
+            .get_attribute_opt(&weakref_module, vm.ctx.intern_str("WeakSet"))?
             .ok_or_else(|| vm.new_attribute_error("WeakSet not found"))?;
         let scheduled_tasks = weak_set_class.call((), vm)?;
         let eager_tasks = PySet::default().into_ref(&vm.ctx);
@@ -52,7 +52,7 @@ pub(crate) mod _asyncio {
         #[cfg(unix)]
         {
             let on_fork = vm
-                .get_attribute_opt(module.to_owned().into(), vm.ctx.intern_str("_on_fork"))?
+                .get_attribute_opt(module.as_object(), vm.ctx.intern_str("_on_fork"))?
                 .expect("_on_fork not found in _asyncio module");
             vm.state.after_forkers_child.lock().push(on_fork);
         }
@@ -148,14 +148,14 @@ pub(crate) mod _asyncio {
     impl Initializer for PyFuture {
         type Args = FuncArgs;
 
-        fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             // Future does not accept positional arguments
             if !args.args.is_empty() {
                 return Err(vm.new_type_error("Future() takes no positional arguments"));
             }
             // Extract only 'loop' keyword argument
             let loop_ = args.kwargs.get("loop").cloned();
-            Self::py_init(&zelf, loop_, vm)
+            Self::py_init(zelf, loop_, vm)
         }
     }
 
@@ -198,14 +198,14 @@ pub(crate) mod _asyncio {
 
             // Check if loop has get_debug method and call it
             if let Ok(Some(get_debug)) =
-                vm.get_attribute_opt(loop_obj, vm.ctx.intern_str("get_debug"))
+                vm.get_attribute_opt(&loop_obj, vm.ctx.intern_str("get_debug"))
                 && let Ok(debug) = get_debug.call((), vm)
                 && debug.try_to_bool(vm).unwrap_or(false)
             {
                 // Get source traceback
                 if let Ok(tb_module) = vm.import("traceback", 0)
                     && let Ok(Some(extract_stack)) =
-                        vm.get_attribute_opt(tb_module, vm.ctx.intern_str("extract_stack"))
+                        vm.get_attribute_opt(&tb_module, vm.ctx.intern_str("extract_stack"))
                     && let Ok(tb) = extract_stack.call((), vm)
                 {
                     *zelf.fut_source_tb.write() = Some(tb);
@@ -878,7 +878,7 @@ pub(crate) mod _asyncio {
                 }
             };
 
-        let func = match vm.get_attribute_opt(module, vm.ctx.intern_str("_future_repr_info")) {
+        let func = match vm.get_attribute_opt(&module, vm.ctx.intern_str("_future_repr_info")) {
             Ok(Some(f)) => f,
             _ => return Ok(get_future_repr_info_fallback(future, vm)),
         };
@@ -908,9 +908,7 @@ pub(crate) mod _asyncio {
 
     fn get_future_repr_info_fallback(future: &PyObject, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> Wtf8Buf {
         // Fallback: build repr from properties directly
-        if let Ok(Some(state)) =
-            vm.get_attribute_opt(future.to_owned(), vm.ctx.intern_str("_state"))
-        {
+        if let Ok(Some(state)) = vm.get_attribute_opt(future, vm.ctx.intern_str("_state")) {
             state
                 .str(vm)
                 .map_or_else(|_| Wtf8Buf::from("unknown"), |s| s.as_wtf8().to_lowercase())
@@ -926,7 +924,7 @@ pub(crate) mod _asyncio {
             .and_then(|asyncio| asyncio.get_attr(vm.ctx.intern_str("base_tasks"), vm))
         {
             Ok(base_tasks) => {
-                match vm.get_attribute_opt(base_tasks, vm.ctx.intern_str("_task_repr_info")) {
+                match vm.get_attribute_opt(&base_tasks, vm.ctx.intern_str("_task_repr_info")) {
                     Ok(Some(func)) => {
                         let info: PyObjectRef = func.call((task.to_owned(),), vm)?;
                         let list: PyListRef = info.downcast().map_err(|_| {
@@ -973,13 +971,10 @@ pub(crate) mod _asyncio {
                 fut.fut_blocking.load(Ordering::Relaxed)
             } else {
                 // For non-native futures, check the attribute
-                vm.get_attribute_opt(
-                    future.clone(),
-                    vm.ctx.intern_str("_asyncio_future_blocking"),
-                )?
-                .map(|v| v.try_to_bool(vm))
-                .transpose()?
-                .unwrap_or(false)
+                vm.get_attribute_opt(&future, vm.ctx.intern_str("_asyncio_future_blocking"))?
+                    .map(|v| v.try_to_bool(vm))
+                    .transpose()?
+                    .unwrap_or(false)
             };
 
             // Check if future is done
@@ -1172,8 +1167,8 @@ pub(crate) mod _asyncio {
     impl Initializer for PyTask {
         type Args = TaskInitArgs;
 
-        fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
-            Self::py_init(&zelf, args, vm)
+        fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+            Self::py_init(zelf, args, vm)
         }
     }
 
@@ -1201,14 +1196,14 @@ pub(crate) mod _asyncio {
 
             // Check if loop has get_debug method and capture source traceback if enabled
             if let Ok(Some(get_debug)) =
-                vm.get_attribute_opt(loop_obj.clone(), vm.ctx.intern_str("get_debug"))
+                vm.get_attribute_opt(&loop_obj, vm.ctx.intern_str("get_debug"))
                 && let Ok(debug) = get_debug.call((), vm)
                 && debug.try_to_bool(vm).unwrap_or(false)
             {
                 // Get source traceback
                 if let Ok(tb_module) = vm.import("traceback", 0)
                     && let Ok(Some(extract_stack)) =
-                        vm.get_attribute_opt(tb_module, vm.ctx.intern_str("extract_stack"))
+                        vm.get_attribute_opt(&tb_module, vm.ctx.intern_str("extract_stack"))
                     && let Ok(tb) = extract_stack.call((), vm)
                 {
                     *zelf.base.fut_source_tb.write() = Some(tb);
@@ -2171,10 +2166,7 @@ pub(crate) mod _asyncio {
         }
 
         let blocking = vm
-            .get_attribute_opt(
-                result.to_owned(),
-                vm.ctx.intern_str("_asyncio_future_blocking"),
-            )?
+            .get_attribute_opt(result, vm.ctx.intern_str("_asyncio_future_blocking"))?
             .and_then(|v| v.try_to_bool(vm).ok())
             .unwrap_or(false);
 
@@ -2411,20 +2403,17 @@ pub(crate) mod _asyncio {
 
         // Slow path: (re)resolve everything and populate the cache.
         let scheduled_tasks = vm
-            .get_attribute_opt(
-                asyncio_module.clone(),
-                vm.ctx.intern_str("_scheduled_tasks"),
-            )?
+            .get_attribute_opt(&asyncio_module, vm.ctx.intern_str("_scheduled_tasks"))?
             .ok_or_else(|| vm.new_attribute_error("_scheduled_tasks not found"))?;
         let eager_tasks: PyRef<PySet> = vm
-            .get_attribute_opt(asyncio_module.clone(), vm.ctx.intern_str("_eager_tasks"))?
+            .get_attribute_opt(&asyncio_module, vm.ctx.intern_str("_eager_tasks"))?
             .ok_or_else(|| vm.new_attribute_error("_eager_tasks not found"))?
             .downcast()
             .map_err(|_| vm.new_type_error("_eager_tasks is not a set"))?;
         // Lenient by design: a missing or non-dict `_current_tasks` just
         // disables the cross-thread lookup instead of raising.
         let current_tasks: Option<PyRef<PyDict>> = vm
-            .get_attribute_opt(asyncio_module.clone(), vm.ctx.intern_str("_current_tasks"))?
+            .get_attribute_opt(&asyncio_module, vm.ctx.intern_str("_current_tasks"))?
             .and_then(|obj| obj.downcast::<PyDict>().ok());
 
         let cache = AsyncioCache {
@@ -2453,10 +2442,7 @@ pub(crate) mod _asyncio {
         }
 
         let copy_context = vm
-            .get_attribute_opt(
-                contextvars_module.clone(),
-                vm.ctx.intern_str("copy_context"),
-            )?
+            .get_attribute_opt(&contextvars_module, vm.ctx.intern_str("copy_context"))?
             .ok_or_else(|| vm.new_attribute_error("copy_context not found"))?;
 
         let cache = ContextVarsCache {
@@ -2514,11 +2500,11 @@ pub(crate) mod _asyncio {
 
         let asyncio_events = vm.import("asyncio.events", 0)?;
         let get_event_loop_policy = vm
-            .get_attribute_opt(asyncio_events, vm.ctx.intern_str("get_event_loop_policy"))?
+            .get_attribute_opt(&asyncio_events, vm.ctx.intern_str("get_event_loop_policy"))?
             .ok_or_else(|| vm.new_attribute_error("get_event_loop_policy"))?;
         let policy = get_event_loop_policy.call((), vm)?;
         let get_event_loop = vm
-            .get_attribute_opt(policy, vm.ctx.intern_str("get_event_loop"))?
+            .get_attribute_opt(&policy, vm.ctx.intern_str("get_event_loop"))?
             .ok_or_else(|| vm.new_attribute_error("get_event_loop"))?;
         get_event_loop.call((), vm)
     }
@@ -2584,7 +2570,7 @@ pub(crate) mod _asyncio {
                     let task_loop = if let Ok(l) = vm.call_method(&task, "get_loop", ()) {
                         Some(l)
                     } else if let Ok(Some(l)) =
-                        vm.get_attribute_opt(task.clone(), vm.ctx.intern_str("_loop"))
+                        vm.get_attribute_opt(&task, vm.ctx.intern_str("_loop"))
                     {
                         Some(l)
                     } else {
@@ -2792,7 +2778,7 @@ pub(crate) mod _asyncio {
         #[pygetset]
         fn __qualname__(&self, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<Option<PyObjectRef>> {
             match self.task.read().as_ref() {
-                Some(t) => vm.get_attribute_opt(t.clone(), vm.ctx.intern_str("__qualname__")),
+                Some(t) => vm.get_attribute_opt(t, vm.ctx.intern_str("__qualname__")),
                 None => Ok(None),
             }
         }
@@ -2838,7 +2824,7 @@ pub(crate) mod _asyncio {
         #[pygetset]
         fn __qualname__(&self, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<Option<PyObjectRef>> {
             match self.task.read().as_ref() {
-                Some(t) => vm.get_attribute_opt(t.clone(), vm.ctx.intern_str("__qualname__")),
+                Some(t) => vm.get_attribute_opt(t, vm.ctx.intern_str("__qualname__")),
                 None => Ok(None),
             }
         }
@@ -2872,7 +2858,7 @@ pub(crate) mod _asyncio {
 
         let asyncio_coroutines = vm.import("asyncio.coroutines", 0)?;
         if let Some(iscoroutine) =
-            vm.get_attribute_opt(asyncio_coroutines, vm.ctx.intern_str("iscoroutine"))?
+            vm.get_attribute_opt(&asyncio_coroutines, vm.ctx.intern_str("iscoroutine"))?
         {
             let result = iscoroutine.call((obj,), vm)?;
             result.try_to_bool(vm)
@@ -2884,7 +2870,7 @@ pub(crate) mod _asyncio {
     fn get_invalid_state_error_type(vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<PyTypeRef> {
         let module = vm.import("asyncio.exceptions", 0)?;
         let exc_type = vm
-            .get_attribute_opt(module, vm.ctx.intern_str("InvalidStateError"))?
+            .get_attribute_opt(&module, vm.ctx.intern_str("InvalidStateError"))?
             .ok_or_else(|| vm.new_attribute_error("InvalidStateError not found"))?;
         exc_type
             .downcast()
@@ -2911,7 +2897,7 @@ pub(crate) mod _asyncio {
     fn get_cancelled_error_type(vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<PyTypeRef> {
         let module = vm.import("asyncio.exceptions", 0)?;
         let exc_type = vm
-            .get_attribute_opt(module, vm.ctx.intern_str("CancelledError"))?
+            .get_attribute_opt(&module, vm.ctx.intern_str("CancelledError"))?
             .ok_or_else(|| vm.new_attribute_error("CancelledError not found"))?;
         exc_type
             .downcast()
diff --git a/crates/stdlib/src/_sqlite3.rs b/crates/stdlib/src/_sqlite3.rs
index 7f3fc1606..1113b4345 100644
--- a/crates/stdlib/src/_sqlite3.rs
+++ b/crates/stdlib/src/_sqlite3.rs
@@ -972,7 +972,7 @@ mod _sqlite3 {
     impl Initializer for Connection {
         type Args = ConnectArgs;
 
-        fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             let was_initialized = Radium::swap(&zelf.initialized, false, Ordering::AcqRel);
 
             // Reset factories to their defaults, matching CPython's behavior.
@@ -2216,7 +2216,7 @@ mod _sqlite3 {
     impl Initializer for Cursor {
         type Args = PyRef<Connection>;
 
-        fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, _connection: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, _connection: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             let mut guard = zelf.inner.lock();
             if guard.is_some() {
                 // Already initialized (e.g., from a call to super().__init__)
@@ -3526,7 +3526,7 @@ mod _sqlite3 {
                 unsafe { sqlite3_result_error(self.ctx, msg.as_ptr().cast(), -1) }
             }
             if enable_traceback().load(Ordering::Relaxed) {
-                vm.print_exception(exc);
+                vm.print_exception(&exc);
             }
         }
 
diff --git a/crates/stdlib/src/cjkcodecs/multibytecodec.rs b/crates/stdlib/src/cjkcodecs/multibytecodec.rs
index 8bb374051..4c5a74059 100644
--- a/crates/stdlib/src/cjkcodecs/multibytecodec.rs
+++ b/crates/stdlib/src/cjkcodecs/multibytecodec.rs
@@ -726,7 +726,7 @@ mod _multibytecodec {
     impl Initializer for MultibyteIncrementalEncoder {
         type Args = FuncArgs;
 
-        fn init(_zelf: PyRef<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn init(_zelf: &Py<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             Ok(())
         }
     }
@@ -857,7 +857,7 @@ mod _multibytecodec {
     impl Initializer for MultibyteIncrementalDecoder {
         type Args = FuncArgs;
 
-        fn init(_zelf: PyRef<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn init(_zelf: &Py<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             Ok(())
         }
     }
@@ -1000,7 +1000,7 @@ mod _multibytecodec {
     impl Initializer for MultibyteStreamReader {
         type Args = FuncArgs;
 
-        fn init(_zelf: PyRef<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn init(_zelf: &Py<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             Ok(())
         }
     }
@@ -1164,7 +1164,7 @@ mod _multibytecodec {
     impl Initializer for MultibyteStreamWriter {
         type Args = FuncArgs;
 
-        fn init(_zelf: PyRef<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn init(_zelf: &Py<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             Ok(())
         }
     }
diff --git a/crates/stdlib/src/csv.rs b/crates/stdlib/src/csv.rs
index 442d26444..9d5b9d79b 100644
--- a/crates/stdlib/src/csv.rs
+++ b/crates/stdlib/src/csv.rs
@@ -462,7 +462,7 @@ mod _csv {
         _rest: FuncArgs,
         vm: &VirtualMachine,
     ) -> PyResult<Writer> {
-        let write = match vm.get_attribute_opt(file.clone(), "write")? {
+        let write = match vm.get_attribute_opt(&file, "write")? {
             Some(write_meth) => write_meth,
             None if file.is_callable() => file,
             None => {
diff --git a/crates/stdlib/src/elementtree.rs b/crates/stdlib/src/elementtree.rs
index 9f6efa5e0..f72dd2a61 100644
--- a/crates/stdlib/src/elementtree.rs
+++ b/crates/stdlib/src/elementtree.rs
@@ -432,7 +432,7 @@ pub(crate) mod _elementtree {
     impl Initializer for PyElement {
         type Args = FuncArgs;
 
-        fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             let (tag, attrib) = parse_attrib_args(args, "Element", 0, vm)?;
             let attrib = attrib.filter(|d| !d.is_empty());
             let _recycle = {
@@ -1367,7 +1367,7 @@ pub(crate) mod _elementtree {
     impl Initializer for PyTreeBuilder {
         type Args = TreeBuilderArgs;
 
-        fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             let module = module_state(vm)?;
             let element_factory = args.element_factory.filter(|f| !vm.is_none(f));
             let comment_factory = match args.comment_factory {
@@ -1917,13 +1917,13 @@ pub(crate) mod _elementtree {
         name: &'static str,
         vm: &VirtualMachine,
     ) -> PyResult<Option<PyObjectRef>> {
-        vm.get_attribute_opt(target.to_owned(), name)
+        vm.get_attribute_opt(target, name)
     }
 
     impl Initializer for PyXMLParser {
         type Args = XMLParserArgs;
 
-        fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             let encoding = match args.encoding {
                 Some(e) if !vm.is_none(&e) => {
                     if !e.downcastable::<PyStr>() {
diff --git a/crates/stdlib/src/mmap.rs b/crates/stdlib/src/mmap.rs
index 8fbd184fc..347667497 100644
--- a/crates/stdlib/src/mmap.rs
+++ b/crates/stdlib/src/mmap.rs
@@ -656,7 +656,7 @@ mod mmap {
                 ass_subscript: atomic_func!(|mapping, needle, value, vm| {
                     let zelf = PyMmap::mapping_downcast(mapping);
                     if let Some(value) = value {
-                        PyMmap::setitem_inner(zelf, needle, value, vm)
+                        PyMmap::setitem_inner(zelf, needle, &value, vm)
                     } else {
                         Err(vm
                             .new_type_error("mmap object doesn't support item deletion".to_owned()))
@@ -1244,7 +1244,7 @@ mod mmap {
             value: PyObjectRef,
             vm: &VirtualMachine,
         ) -> PyResult<()> {
-            Self::setitem_inner(zelf, needle, value, vm)
+            Self::setitem_inner(zelf, needle, &value, vm)
         }
 
         #[pymethod]
@@ -1354,12 +1354,12 @@ mod mmap {
         fn setitem_inner(
             zelf: &Py<Self>,
             needle: &PyObject,
-            value: PyObjectRef,
+            value: &PyObject,
             vm: &VirtualMachine,
         ) -> PyResult<()> {
             match SequenceIndex::try_from_borrowed_object(vm, needle, "mmap")? {
-                SequenceIndex::Int(i) => Self::setitem_by_index(zelf, i, &value, vm),
-                SequenceIndex::Slice(slice) => Self::setitem_by_slice(zelf, &slice, &value, vm),
+                SequenceIndex::Int(i) => Self::setitem_by_index(zelf, i, value, vm),
+                SequenceIndex::Slice(slice) => Self::setitem_by_slice(zelf, &slice, value, vm),
             }
         }
 
diff --git a/crates/stdlib/src/pickle.rs b/crates/stdlib/src/pickle.rs
index 40f8f79ea..fe0d998cc 100644
--- a/crates/stdlib/src/pickle.rs
+++ b/crates/stdlib/src/pickle.rs
@@ -499,7 +499,7 @@ mod _pickle {
     impl Initializer for PyUnpickler {
         type Args = UnpicklerNewArgs;
 
-        fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             let Some(mut state) = zelf.read_state.try_lock() else {
                 return Err(vm.new_runtime_error("Unpickler.__init__() called recursively"));
             };
@@ -525,10 +525,10 @@ mod _pickle {
             };
 
             let file = args.file;
-            let peek = vm.get_attribute_opt(file.clone(), "peek")?;
-            let _readinto = vm.get_attribute_opt(file.clone(), "readinto")?;
-            let read = vm.get_attribute_opt(file.clone(), "read")?;
-            let readline = vm.get_attribute_opt(file, "readline")?;
+            let peek = vm.get_attribute_opt(&file, "peek")?;
+            let _readinto = vm.get_attribute_opt(&file, "readinto")?;
+            let read = vm.get_attribute_opt(&file, "read")?;
+            let readline = vm.get_attribute_opt(&file, "readline")?;
             if read.is_none() || readline.is_none() {
                 return Err(vm.new_type_error("file must have 'read' and 'readline' attributes"));
             }
@@ -1166,7 +1166,7 @@ mod _pickle {
                     if let Some(list) = obj.downcast_ref::<PyList>() {
                         list.borrow_vec_mut().extend(items);
                     } else {
-                        match vm.get_attribute_opt(obj.clone(), "extend")? {
+                        match vm.get_attribute_opt(&obj, "extend")? {
                             Some(extend) => {
                                 extend.call((vm.ctx.new_list(items),), vm)?;
                             }
@@ -1521,9 +1521,7 @@ mod _pickle {
     ) -> PyResult<PyObjectRef> {
         if args.is_empty()
             && cls.class().is(vm.ctx.types.type_type)
-            && vm
-                .get_attribute_opt(cls.clone(), "__getinitargs__")?
-                .is_none()
+            && vm.get_attribute_opt(&cls, "__getinitargs__")?.is_none()
         {
             return vm.call_method(&cls, "__new__", (cls.clone(),));
         }
@@ -1531,7 +1529,7 @@ mod _pickle {
     }
 
     fn load_build(inst: &PyObject, state: PyObjectRef, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
-        if let Some(setstate) = vm.get_attribute_opt(inst.to_owned(), "__setstate__")? {
+        if let Some(setstate) = vm.get_attribute_opt(inst, "__setstate__")? {
             setstate.call((state,), vm)?;
             return Ok(());
         }
@@ -1711,9 +1709,9 @@ mod _pickle {
 
     #[pyfunction]
     fn load(args: LoadArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<PyObjectRef> {
-        let peek = vm.get_attribute_opt(args.file.clone(), "peek")?;
-        let read = vm.get_attribute_opt(args.file.clone(), "read")?;
-        let readline = vm.get_attribute_opt(args.file, "readline")?;
+        let peek = vm.get_attribute_opt(&args.file, "peek")?;
+        let read = vm.get_attribute_opt(&args.file, "read")?;
+        let readline = vm.get_attribute_opt(&args.file, "readline")?;
         if read.is_none() || readline.is_none() {
             return Err(vm.new_type_error("file must have 'read' and 'readline' attributes"));
         }
@@ -2005,7 +2003,7 @@ mod _pickle {
     impl Initializer for PyPickler {
         type Args = PicklerNewArgs;
 
-        fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             let Some(mut out) = zelf.out.try_lock() else {
                 return Err(vm.new_runtime_error("Pickler.__init__() called recursively"));
             };
@@ -2971,11 +2969,9 @@ mod _pickle {
                     rv = Some(reduce.call((obj.to_owned(),), vm)?);
                 } else if cls.fast_issubclass(vm.ctx.types.type_type) {
                     return self.save_global(obj, None, vm);
-                } else if let Some(reduce) =
-                    vm.get_attribute_opt(obj.to_owned(), "__reduce_ex__")?
-                {
+                } else if let Some(reduce) = vm.get_attribute_opt(obj, "__reduce_ex__")? {
                     rv = Some(reduce.call((self.proto,), vm)?);
-                } else if let Some(reduce) = vm.get_attribute_opt(obj.to_owned(), "__reduce__")? {
+                } else if let Some(reduce) = vm.get_attribute_opt(obj, "__reduce__")? {
                     rv = Some(reduce.call((), vm)?);
                 } else {
                     return Err(new_pickling_error(
@@ -3103,7 +3099,7 @@ mod _pickle {
             let obj_name =
                 |vm: &VirtualMachine| obj.map_or_else(String::new, |o| obj_type_name(o, vm));
             let func_name = vm
-                .get_attribute_opt(func.to_owned(), "__name__")?
+                .get_attribute_opt(func, "__name__")?
                 .and_then(|o| {
                     o.downcast_ref::<PyStr>()
                         .map(|s| s.to_string_lossy().into_owned())
@@ -3119,7 +3115,7 @@ mod _pickle {
                     )));
                 }
                 let (cls, newargs, kwargs) = (parts[0].clone(), parts[1].clone(), parts[2].clone());
-                if vm.get_attribute_opt(cls.clone(), "__new__")?.is_none() {
+                if vm.get_attribute_opt(&cls, "__new__")?.is_none() {
                     return Err(new_pickling_error(
                         vm,
                         "first argument to __newobj_ex__() has no __new__",
@@ -3208,7 +3204,7 @@ mod _pickle {
                     return Err(vm.new_index_error("tuple index out of range"));
                 }
                 let cls = parts[0].clone();
-                if vm.get_attribute_opt(cls.clone(), "__new__")?.is_none() {
+                if vm.get_attribute_opt(&cls, "__new__")?.is_none() {
                     return Err(new_pickling_error(
                         vm,
                         "first argument to __newobj__() has no __new__",
@@ -3399,7 +3395,7 @@ mod _pickle {
                     .downcast()
                     .map_err(|_| new_pickling_error(vm, "expected a string as the global name"))?,
                 None => {
-                    let value = match vm.get_attribute_opt(obj.to_owned(), "__qualname__")? {
+                    let value = match vm.get_attribute_opt(obj, "__qualname__")? {
                         Some(q) if !vm.is_none(&q) => q,
                         _ => obj.get_attr("__name__", vm)?,
                     };
@@ -3596,7 +3592,7 @@ mod _pickle {
             ));
         }
         let sys_modules = vm.sys_module.get_attr("modules", vm)?;
-        let module_attr = vm.get_attribute_opt(obj.to_owned(), "__module__")?;
+        let module_attr = vm.get_attribute_opt(obj, "__module__")?;
         let module_name: PyRef<PyStr> = match module_attr {
             Some(m) if !vm.is_none(&m) => m
                 .downcast()
@@ -3731,8 +3727,8 @@ mod _pickle {
             "persistent_id",
             vm,
         )?;
-        let reducer_override = vm.get_attribute_opt(zelf.to_owned().into(), "reducer_override")?;
-        let dispatch_table = vm.get_attribute_opt(zelf.to_owned().into(), "dispatch_table")?;
+        let reducer_override = vm.get_attribute_opt(zelf.as_object(), "reducer_override")?;
+        let dispatch_table = vm.get_attribute_opt(zelf.as_object(), "dispatch_table")?;
 
         out.buf.clear();
         out.frame_start = None;
diff --git a/crates/stdlib/src/pystruct.rs b/crates/stdlib/src/pystruct.rs
index 5e0553b2f..278888c21 100644
--- a/crates/stdlib/src/pystruct.rs
+++ b/crates/stdlib/src/pystruct.rs
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ pub(crate) use _struct::module_def;
 #[pymodule]
 pub(crate) mod _struct {
     use crate::vm::{
-        AsObject, Py, PyObjectRef, PyPayload, PyRef, PyResult, TryFromObject, VirtualMachine,
+        AsObject, Py, PyObjectRef, PyPayload, PyResult, TryFromObject, VirtualMachine,
         buffer::{FormatSpec, new_struct_error, struct_error_type},
         builtins::{PyBytes, PyStr, PyStrRef, PyTupleRef, PyType, PyTypeRef},
         common::lock::{PyMappedRwLockReadGuard, PyRwLock, PyRwLockReadGuard},
@@ -283,7 +283,7 @@ pub(crate) mod _struct {
     impl Initializer for PyStruct {
         type Args = IntoStructFormatBytes;
 
-        fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, fmt: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, fmt: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             // The format is read before anything is replaced, so a format that
             // cannot be read leaves the object as it was.
             let spec = fmt.format_spec(vm)?;
diff --git a/crates/stdlib/src/random.rs b/crates/stdlib/src/random.rs
index 3f4c4e482..66767a5f3 100644
--- a/crates/stdlib/src/random.rs
+++ b/crates/stdlib/src/random.rs
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ pub(crate) use _random::module_def;
 mod _random {
     use crate::common::lock::PyMutex;
     use crate::vm::{
-        PyObjectRef, PyPayload, PyRef, PyResult, VirtualMachine,
+        Py, PyObjectRef, PyPayload, PyResult, VirtualMachine,
         builtins::{PyInt, PyTupleRef},
         function::OptionalOption,
         types::{Constructor, Initializer},
@@ -30,7 +30,7 @@ mod _random {
     impl Initializer for PyRandom {
         type Args = OptionalOption;
 
-        fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, x: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, x: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             zelf.seed(x, vm)
         }
     }
diff --git a/crates/stdlib/src/socket.rs b/crates/stdlib/src/socket.rs
index ff582ef4f..f71d1283e 100644
--- a/crates/stdlib/src/socket.rs
+++ b/crates/stdlib/src/socket.rs
@@ -1665,8 +1665,8 @@ mod _socket {
     impl Initializer for PySocket {
         type Args = SocketInitArgs;
 
-        fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
-            Self::_init(&zelf, args, vm).map_err(|e| e.into_pyexception(vm))
+        fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+            Self::_init(zelf, args, vm).map_err(|e| e.into_pyexception(vm))
         }
     }
 
diff --git a/crates/stdlib/src/socket_wasm.rs b/crates/stdlib/src/socket_wasm.rs
index 085785965..6412fceb7 100644
--- a/crates/stdlib/src/socket_wasm.rs
+++ b/crates/stdlib/src/socket_wasm.rs
@@ -389,7 +389,7 @@ mod _socket {
     impl Initializer for PySocket {
         type Args = SocketInitArgs;
 
-        fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             let family = args.family.unwrap_or(AF_INET);
             let kind = args.r#type.unwrap_or(SOCK_STREAM);
             let proto = args.proto.unwrap_or(0);
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/anystr.rs b/crates/vm/src/anystr.rs
index 20c2de260..960079c7f 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/anystr.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/anystr.rs
@@ -49,7 +49,11 @@ pub(crate) struct StartsEndsWithArgs {
 impl StartsEndsWithArgs {
     pub(crate) fn get_value(self, len: usize) -> (PyObjectRef, Option<Range<usize>>) {
         let range = if self.start.is_some() || self.end.is_some() {
-            Some(adjust_indices(self.start, self.end, len))
+            Some(adjust_indices(
+                self.start.as_deref(),
+                self.end.as_deref(),
+                len,
+            ))
         } else {
             None
         };
@@ -88,12 +92,12 @@ fn saturate_to_isize(py_int: &Py<PyInt>) -> isize {
 
 // help get optional string indices
 pub(crate) fn adjust_indices(
-    start: Option<PyIntRef>,
-    end: Option<PyIntRef>,
+    start: Option<&Py<PyInt>>,
+    end: Option<&Py<PyInt>>,
     len: usize,
 ) -> Range<usize> {
-    let mut start = start.as_deref().map_or(0, saturate_to_isize);
-    let mut end = end.as_deref().map_or(len as isize, saturate_to_isize);
+    let mut start = start.map_or(0, saturate_to_isize);
+    let mut end = end.map_or(len as isize, saturate_to_isize);
     if end > len as isize {
         end = len as isize;
     } else if end < 0 {
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/builtins/bytearray.rs b/crates/vm/src/builtins/bytearray.rs
index 19dc46deb..ba6847c8e 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/builtins/bytearray.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/builtins/bytearray.rs
@@ -104,16 +104,16 @@ impl PyByteArray {
     fn _setitem(
         zelf: &Py<Self>,
         needle: &PyObject,
-        value: PyObjectRef,
+        value: &PyObject,
         vm: &VirtualMachine,
     ) -> PyResult<()> {
         match SequenceIndex::try_from_borrowed_object(vm, needle, "bytearray")? {
-            SequenceIndex::Int(i) => zelf._setitem_by_index(i, &value, vm),
+            SequenceIndex::Int(i) => zelf._setitem_by_index(i, value, vm),
             SequenceIndex::Slice(slice) => {
                 let items = if zelf.is(&value) {
                     zelf.borrow_buf().to_vec()
                 } else {
-                    bytearray_from_object(vm, &value)?
+                    bytearray_from_object(vm, value)?
                 };
                 if let Some(mut w) = zelf.try_resizable_opt() {
                     w.elements.setitem_by_slice(vm, slice, &items)
@@ -575,7 +575,7 @@ impl Py<PyByteArray> {
         value: PyObjectRef,
         vm: &VirtualMachine,
     ) -> PyResult<()> {
-        PyByteArray::_setitem(self, needle, value, vm)
+        PyByteArray::_setitem(self, needle, &value, vm)
     }
 
     #[pymethod]
@@ -712,7 +712,7 @@ impl DefaultConstructor for PyByteArray {}
 impl Initializer for PyByteArray {
     type Args = ByteInnerNewOptions;
 
-    fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, options: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+    fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, options: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
         // First unpack bytearray and *then* get a lock to set it.
         let mut inner = options.get_inner(bytearray_from_object, vm)?;
         core::mem::swap(&mut *zelf.inner_mut(), &mut inner);
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/builtins/classmethod.rs b/crates/vm/src/builtins/classmethod.rs
index c0f6d5f78..058396708 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/builtins/classmethod.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/builtins/classmethod.rs
@@ -52,13 +52,16 @@ impl PyPayload for PyClassMethod {
 
 impl GetDescriptor for PyClassMethod {
     fn descr_get(
-        zelf: PyObjectRef,
-        obj: Option<PyObjectRef>,
-        cls: Option<PyObjectRef>,
+        zelf: &PyObject,
+        obj: Option<&PyObject>,
+        cls: Option<&PyObject>,
         vm: &VirtualMachine,
     ) -> PyResult {
-        let (zelf, _obj) = Self::_unwrap(&zelf, obj, vm)?;
-        let cls = cls.unwrap_or_else(|| _obj.class().to_owned().into());
+        let (zelf, _obj) = Self::_unwrap(zelf, obj, vm)?;
+        let cls = match cls {
+            Some(cls) => cls.to_owned(),
+            None => _obj.class().to_owned().into(),
+        };
         let callable = zelf.callable.lock().clone();
         Ok(PyBoundMethod::new(cls, callable).into_ref(&vm.ctx).into())
     }
@@ -88,7 +91,7 @@ impl Constructor for PyClassMethod {
 impl Initializer for PyClassMethod {
     type Args = PyObjectRef;
 
-    fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, callable: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+    fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, callable: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
         *zelf.callable.lock() = callable.clone();
         functools_wraps(zelf.as_object(), &callable, vm)
     }
@@ -173,7 +176,7 @@ impl PyClassMethod {
     #[pygetset]
     fn __isabstractmethod__(&self, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyObjectRef {
         let callable = self.callable.lock().clone();
-        if let Ok(Some(is_abstract)) = vm.get_attribute_opt(callable, "__isabstractmethod__") {
+        if let Ok(Some(is_abstract)) = vm.get_attribute_opt(&callable, "__isabstractmethod__") {
             is_abstract
         } else {
             vm.ctx.new_bool(false).into()
@@ -239,7 +242,7 @@ pub(crate) fn functools_wraps(
         identifier!(vm.ctx, __qualname__),
         identifier!(vm.ctx, __doc__),
     ] {
-        if let Some(value) = vm.get_attribute_opt(wrapped.to_owned(), attr)? {
+        if let Some(value) = vm.get_attribute_opt(wrapped, attr)? {
             wrapper.set_attr(attr, value, vm)?;
         }
     }
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/builtins/descriptor.rs b/crates/vm/src/builtins/descriptor.rs
index 97086cc74..9c7b456f6 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/builtins/descriptor.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/builtins/descriptor.rs
@@ -70,12 +70,12 @@ impl core::fmt::Debug for PyMethodDescriptor {
 
 impl GetDescriptor for PyMethodDescriptor {
     fn descr_get(
-        zelf: PyObjectRef,
-        obj: Option<PyObjectRef>,
-        cls: Option<PyObjectRef>,
+        zelf: &PyObject,
+        obj: Option<&PyObject>,
+        cls: Option<&PyObject>,
         vm: &VirtualMachine,
     ) -> PyResult {
-        let descr = Self::_as_pyref(&zelf, vm).unwrap();
+        let descr = Self::_as_pyref(zelf, vm).unwrap();
         let bound = match obj {
             Some(obj) => {
                 if descr.method.flags.contains(PyMethodFlags::METHOD) {
@@ -83,7 +83,7 @@ impl GetDescriptor for PyMethodDescriptor {
                         .as_ref()
                         .is_none_or(|c| c.fast_isinstance(vm.ctx.types.type_type))
                     {
-                        obj
+                        obj.to_owned()
                     } else {
                         return Err(vm.new_type_error(format!(
                             "descriptor '{}' needs a type, not '{}', as arg 2",
@@ -94,11 +94,11 @@ impl GetDescriptor for PyMethodDescriptor {
                 } else if descr.method.flags.contains(PyMethodFlags::CLASS) {
                     obj.class().to_owned().into()
                 } else {
-                    obj
+                    obj.to_owned()
                 }
             }
-            None if descr.method.flags.contains(PyMethodFlags::CLASS) => cls.unwrap(),
-            None => return Ok(zelf),
+            None if descr.method.flags.contains(PyMethodFlags::CLASS) => cls.unwrap().to_owned(),
+            None => return Ok(zelf.to_owned()),
         };
         Ok(descr.bind(bound, &vm.ctx).into())
     }
@@ -220,15 +220,15 @@ impl core::fmt::Debug for PyClassMethodDescriptor {
 
 impl GetDescriptor for PyClassMethodDescriptor {
     fn descr_get(
-        zelf: PyObjectRef,
-        obj: Option<PyObjectRef>,
-        cls: Option<PyObjectRef>,
+        zelf: &PyObject,
+        obj: Option<&PyObject>,
+        cls: Option<&PyObject>,
         vm: &VirtualMachine,
     ) -> PyResult {
-        let descr = Self::_as_pyref(&zelf, vm).unwrap();
+        let descr = Self::_as_pyref(zelf, vm).unwrap();
         let type_obj = match cls {
-            Some(typ) => typ,
-            None => match &obj {
+            Some(typ) => typ.to_owned(),
+            None => match obj {
                 Some(o) => o.class().to_owned().into(),
                 None => {
                     return Err(vm.new_type_error(format!(
@@ -277,7 +277,7 @@ impl Callable for PyClassMethodDescriptor {
                 zelf.common.typ.name()
             )));
         };
-        let bound = Self::descr_get(zelf.to_owned().into(), None, Some(owner), vm)?;
+        let bound = Self::descr_get(zelf.as_object(), None, Some(&owner), vm)?;
         args.args.remove(0);
         bound.call(args, vm)
     }
@@ -417,7 +417,7 @@ impl PyPayload for PyMemberDescriptor {
 }
 
 fn calculate_qualname(descr: &PyDescriptorOwned, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<Option<String>> {
-    if let Some(qualname) = vm.get_attribute_opt(descr.typ.clone().into(), "__qualname__")? {
+    if let Some(qualname) = vm.get_attribute_opt(descr.typ.as_object(), "__qualname__")? {
         let str = qualname.downcast::<PyStr>().map_err(|_| {
             vm.new_type_error("<descriptor>.__objclass__.__qualname__ is not a unicode object")
         })?;
@@ -581,12 +581,12 @@ impl Representable for PyMemberDescriptor {
 
 impl GetDescriptor for PyMemberDescriptor {
     fn descr_get(
-        zelf: PyObjectRef,
-        obj: Option<PyObjectRef>,
-        _cls: Option<PyObjectRef>,
+        zelf: &PyObject,
+        obj: Option<&PyObject>,
+        _cls: Option<&PyObject>,
         vm: &VirtualMachine,
     ) -> PyResult {
-        let descr = Self::_as_pyref(&zelf, vm)?;
+        let descr = Self::_as_pyref(zelf, vm)?;
         match obj {
             Some(x) => {
                 if !x.class().fast_issubclass(&descr.common.typ) {
@@ -597,9 +597,9 @@ impl GetDescriptor for PyMemberDescriptor {
                         x.class().name()
                     )));
                 }
-                descr.member.get(x, vm)
+                descr.member.get(x.to_owned(), vm)
             }
-            None => Ok(zelf),
+            None => Ok(zelf.to_owned()),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -774,7 +774,7 @@ impl SlotFunc {
     pub fn call(&self, obj: PyObjectRef, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult {
         match self {
             Self::Init(func) => {
-                func(obj, args, vm)?;
+                func(&obj, args, vm)?;
                 Ok(vm.ctx.none())
             }
             Self::Hash(func) => {
@@ -848,7 +848,7 @@ impl SlotFunc {
                 } else {
                     Some(instance)
                 };
-                func(obj, instance_opt, owner, vm)
+                func(&obj, instance_opt.as_deref(), owner.as_deref(), vm)
             }
             Self::DescrSet(func) => {
                 let (instance, value): (PyObjectRef, PyObjectRef) = args.bind(vm)?;
@@ -1011,16 +1011,20 @@ impl PyPayload for PyWrapper {
 
 impl GetDescriptor for PyWrapper {
     fn descr_get(
-        zelf: PyObjectRef,
-        obj: Option<PyObjectRef>,
-        _cls: Option<PyObjectRef>,
+        zelf: &PyObject,
+        obj: Option<&PyObject>,
+        _cls: Option<&PyObject>,
         vm: &VirtualMachine,
     ) -> PyResult {
         match obj {
-            None => Ok(zelf),
+            None => Ok(zelf.to_owned()),
             Some(obj) => {
-                let zelf = zelf.downcast::<Self>().unwrap();
-                Ok(PyMethodWrapper { wrapper: zelf, obj }.into_pyobject(vm))
+                let zelf = zelf.to_owned().downcast::<Self>().unwrap();
+                Ok(PyMethodWrapper {
+                    wrapper: zelf,
+                    obj: obj.to_owned(),
+                }
+                .into_pyobject(vm))
             }
         }
     }
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/builtins/dict.rs b/crates/vm/src/builtins/dict.rs
index d4a5a6e10..25a769e8c 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/builtins/dict.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/builtins/dict.rs
@@ -166,7 +166,7 @@ impl PyDict {
             Err(e) => return Err(e),
         };
         if !has_keys {
-            return self.merge_from_seq2(other, override_existing, vm);
+            return self.merge_from_seq2(&other, override_existing, vm);
         }
         Ok(())
     }
@@ -252,7 +252,7 @@ impl PyDict {
 
     pub fn merge_from_seq2(
         &self,
-        seq2: PyObjectRef,
+        seq2: &PyObject,
         override_existing: bool,
         vm: &VirtualMachine,
     ) -> PyResult<()> {
@@ -628,11 +628,7 @@ impl DefaultConstructor for PyDict {}
 impl Initializer for PyDict {
     type Args = (OptionalArg<PyObjectRef>, KwArgs);
 
-    fn init(
-        zelf: PyRef<Self>,
-        (dict_obj, kwargs): Self::Args,
-        vm: &VirtualMachine,
-    ) -> PyResult<()> {
+    fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, (dict_obj, kwargs): Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
         zelf.update(dict_obj, kwargs, vm)
     }
 }
@@ -1822,7 +1818,7 @@ fn vectorcall_dict(
     let zelf: &Py<PyType> = zelf_obj.downcast_ref().unwrap();
     let obj = PyDict::default().into_ref_with_type(vm, zelf.to_owned())?;
     let func_args = FuncArgs::from_vectorcall_owned(args, nargs, kwnames);
-    PyDict::slot_init(obj.clone().into(), func_args, vm)?;
+    PyDict::slot_init(obj.as_object(), func_args, vm)?;
     Ok(obj.into())
 }
 
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/builtins/frame_locals_proxy.rs b/crates/vm/src/builtins/frame_locals_proxy.rs
index 888c6ec95..54f41e048 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/builtins/frame_locals_proxy.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/builtins/frame_locals_proxy.rs
@@ -167,7 +167,7 @@ impl FrameLocalsProxy {
     #[pymethod]
     fn setdefault(&self, key: PyObjectRef, default: OptionalArg, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult {
         self.frame
-            .framelocalsproxy_setdefault(key, default.unwrap_or_none(vm), vm)
+            .framelocalsproxy_setdefault(&key, default.unwrap_or_none(vm), vm)
     }
 
     #[pymethod]
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/builtins/function.rs b/crates/vm/src/builtins/function.rs
index 7218b79e8..c10cbb719 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/builtins/function.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/builtins/function.rs
@@ -1292,16 +1292,18 @@ impl PyFunction {
 
 impl GetDescriptor for PyFunction {
     fn descr_get(
-        zelf: PyObjectRef,
-        obj: Option<PyObjectRef>,
-        cls: Option<PyObjectRef>,
+        zelf: &PyObject,
+        obj: Option<&PyObject>,
+        cls: Option<&PyObject>,
         vm: &VirtualMachine,
     ) -> PyResult {
-        let (_zelf, obj) = Self::_unwrap(&zelf, obj, vm)?;
-        Ok(if vm.is_none(&obj) && !Self::_cls_is(&cls, obj.class()) {
-            zelf
+        let (_zelf, obj) = Self::_unwrap(zelf, obj, vm)?;
+        Ok(if vm.is_none(obj) && !Self::_cls_is(&cls, obj.class()) {
+            zelf.to_owned()
         } else {
-            PyBoundMethod::new(obj, zelf).into_ref(&vm.ctx).into()
+            PyBoundMethod::new(obj.to_owned(), zelf.to_owned())
+                .into_ref(&vm.ctx)
+                .into()
         })
     }
 }
@@ -1443,12 +1445,12 @@ impl GetAttr for PyBoundMethod {
 
 impl GetDescriptor for PyBoundMethod {
     fn descr_get(
-        zelf: PyObjectRef,
-        _obj: Option<PyObjectRef>,
-        _cls: Option<PyObjectRef>,
+        zelf: &PyObject,
+        _obj: Option<&PyObject>,
+        _cls: Option<&PyObject>,
         _vm: &VirtualMachine,
     ) -> PyResult {
-        Ok(zelf)
+        Ok(zelf.to_owned())
     }
 }
 
@@ -1589,11 +1591,11 @@ impl Representable for PyBoundMethod {
     #[inline]
     fn repr_wtf8(zelf: &Py<Self>, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<Wtf8Buf> {
         let func_name = if let Some(qname) =
-            vm.get_attribute_opt(zelf.function.clone(), identifier!(vm, __qualname__))?
+            vm.get_attribute_opt(&zelf.function, identifier!(vm, __qualname__))?
         {
             Some(qname)
         } else {
-            vm.get_attribute_opt(zelf.function.clone(), identifier!(vm, __name__))?
+            vm.get_attribute_opt(&zelf.function, identifier!(vm, __name__))?
         };
         let func_name: Option<PyStrRef> = func_name.and_then(|o| o.downcast().ok());
         let object_repr = zelf.object.repr(vm)?;
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/builtins/genericalias.rs b/crates/vm/src/builtins/genericalias.rs
index 7ea4c01a6..7ccdf4eff 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/builtins/genericalias.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/builtins/genericalias.rs
@@ -123,19 +123,19 @@ impl PyGenericAlias {
             }
 
             if vm
-                .get_attribute_opt(obj.to_owned(), identifier!(vm, __origin__))?
+                .get_attribute_opt(obj, identifier!(vm, __origin__))?
                 .is_some()
                 && vm
-                    .get_attribute_opt(obj.to_owned(), identifier!(vm, __args__))?
+                    .get_attribute_opt(obj, identifier!(vm, __args__))?
                     .is_some()
             {
                 return Ok(obj.repr(vm)?.to_string());
             }
 
             match (
-                vm.get_attribute_opt(obj.to_owned(), identifier!(vm, __qualname__))?
+                vm.get_attribute_opt(obj, identifier!(vm, __qualname__))?
                     .and_then(|o| o.downcast_ref::<PyStr>().map(|n| n.to_string())),
-                vm.get_attribute_opt(obj.to_owned(), identifier!(vm, __module__))?
+                vm.get_attribute_opt(obj, identifier!(vm, __module__))?
                     .and_then(|o| o.downcast_ref::<PyStr>().map(|m| m.to_string())),
             ) {
                 (None, _) | (_, None) => Ok(obj.repr(vm)?.to_string()),
@@ -147,7 +147,7 @@ impl PyGenericAlias {
             }
         }
 
-        fn repr_arg(obj: PyObjectRef, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<String> {
+        fn repr_arg(obj: &PyObject, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<String> {
             // ParamSpec args can be lists - format their items with repr_item
             if obj.class().is(vm.ctx.types.list_type) {
                 let list = obj.downcast_ref::<crate::builtins::PyList>().unwrap();
@@ -164,7 +164,7 @@ impl PyGenericAlias {
                 }
                 Ok(format!("[{}]", parts.join(", ")))
             } else {
-                repr_item(&obj, vm)
+                repr_item(obj, vm)
             }
         }
 
@@ -176,7 +176,7 @@ impl PyGenericAlias {
             } else {
                 self.args
                     .iter()
-                    .map(|o| repr_arg(o.clone(), vm))
+                    .map(|o| repr_arg(o, vm))
                     .collect::<PyResult<Vec<_>>>()?
                     .join(", ")
             }
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/builtins/getset.rs b/crates/vm/src/builtins/getset.rs
index 96c077733..6b2699d3a 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/builtins/getset.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/builtins/getset.rs
@@ -56,17 +56,17 @@ impl PyPayload for PyGetSet {
 
 impl GetDescriptor for PyGetSet {
     fn descr_get(
-        zelf: PyObjectRef,
-        obj: Option<PyObjectRef>,
-        _cls: Option<PyObjectRef>,
+        zelf: &PyObject,
+        obj: Option<&PyObject>,
+        _cls: Option<&PyObject>,
         vm: &VirtualMachine,
     ) -> PyResult {
-        let (zelf, obj) = match Self::_check(&zelf, obj, vm) {
+        let (zelf, obj) = match Self::_check(zelf, obj, vm) {
             Some(obj) => obj,
-            None => return Ok(zelf),
+            None => return Ok(zelf.to_owned()),
         };
         if let Some(ref f) = zelf.getter {
-            f(vm, obj)
+            f(vm, obj.to_owned())
         } else {
             Err(vm.new_attribute_error(format!(
                 "attribute '{}' of '{}' objects is not readable",
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/builtins/list.rs b/crates/vm/src/builtins/list.rs
index 8cff4500c..48f7f245d 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/builtins/list.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/builtins/list.rs
@@ -409,7 +409,7 @@ impl PyList {
             let version_before = self.mutation_counter.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
             (core::mem::take(&mut *guard), version_before)
         };
-        let res = do_sort(vm, &mut elements, options.key, options.reverse);
+        let res = do_sort(vm, &mut elements, options.key.as_deref(), options.reverse);
         let mutated = {
             let mut guard = self.elements.write();
             let mutated = self.mutation_counter.load(Ordering::Relaxed) != version_before;
@@ -484,9 +484,9 @@ impl Constructor for PyList {
 impl Initializer for PyList {
     type Args = OptionalArg<PyObjectRef>;
 
-    fn slot_init(zelf: PyObjectRef, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+    fn slot_init(zelf: &PyObject, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
         let list_type = vm.ctx.types.list_type;
-        let cls = zelf.class().to_owned();
+        let cls = zelf.class();
         let uses_list_new = {
             let cls_new = cls.slots.new.load().map(crate::types::fn_addr);
             let list_new = list_type.slots.new.load().map(crate::types::fn_addr);
@@ -503,10 +503,10 @@ impl Initializer for PyList {
                 }
             }
         };
-        Self::init(zelf.try_into_value(vm)?, iterable, vm)
+        Self::init(zelf.try_to_ref(vm)?, iterable, vm)
     }
 
-    fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, iterable: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+    fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, iterable: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
         let mut elements = if let OptionalArg::Present(iterable) = iterable {
             vm.extract_elements_sized(&iterable, &|| 0, Ok)?
         } else {
@@ -882,10 +882,10 @@ where
 fn do_sort(
     vm: &VirtualMachine,
     values: &mut Vec<PyObjectRef>,
-    key_func: Option<PyObjectRef>,
+    key_func: Option<&PyObject>,
     reverse: bool,
 ) -> PyResult<()> {
-    if let Some(ref key_func) = key_func {
+    if let Some(key_func) = key_func {
         let mut items = values
             .iter()
             .map(|x| Ok((x.clone(), key_func.call((x.clone(),), vm)?)))
@@ -1027,7 +1027,7 @@ fn vectorcall_list(
     let zelf: &Py<PyType> = zelf_obj.downcast_ref().unwrap();
     let obj = PyList::default().into_ref_with_type(vm, zelf.to_owned())?;
     let func_args = FuncArgs::from_vectorcall_owned(args, nargs, kwnames);
-    PyList::slot_init(obj.clone().into(), func_args, vm)?;
+    PyList::slot_init(obj.as_object(), func_args, vm)?;
     Ok(obj.into())
 }
 
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/builtins/module.rs b/crates/vm/src/builtins/module.rs
index 3fbd9704c..a705649b5 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/builtins/module.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/builtins/module.rs
@@ -427,7 +427,7 @@ impl PyModule {
 impl Initializer for PyModule {
     type Args = ModuleInitArgs;
 
-    fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+    fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
         debug_assert!(
             zelf.class()
                 .slots
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/builtins/namespace.rs b/crates/vm/src/builtins/namespace.rs
index bd574fd97..dddede3e7 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/builtins/namespace.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/builtins/namespace.rs
@@ -89,7 +89,7 @@ impl PyNamespace {
 impl Initializer for PyNamespace {
     type Args = FuncArgs;
 
-    fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+    fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
         // SimpleNamespace accepts 0 or 1 positional argument (a mapping)
         if args.args.len() > 1 {
             return Err(vm.new_type_error(format!(
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/builtins/object.rs b/crates/vm/src/builtins/object.rs
index 9955b0cbd..01b56b4e7 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/builtins/object.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/builtins/object.rs
@@ -114,7 +114,7 @@ impl Initializer for PyBaseObject {
     type Args = FuncArgs;
 
     // object_init: excess_args validation
-    fn slot_init(zelf: PyObjectRef, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+    fn slot_init(zelf: &PyObject, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
         if args.is_empty() {
             return Ok(());
         }
@@ -152,7 +152,7 @@ impl Initializer for PyBaseObject {
         Ok(())
     }
 
-    fn init(_zelf: PyRef<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+    fn init(_zelf: &Py<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
         unreachable!("slot_init is defined")
     }
 }
@@ -505,7 +505,7 @@ impl PyBaseObject {
     #[pymethod]
     fn __reduce_ex__(zelf: PyObjectRef, protocol: usize, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult {
         let __reduce__ = identifier!(vm, __reduce__);
-        if let Some(reduce) = vm.get_attribute_opt(zelf.clone(), __reduce__)? {
+        if let Some(reduce) = vm.get_attribute_opt(&zelf, __reduce__)? {
             let object_reduce = vm.ctx.types.object_type.get_attr(__reduce__).unwrap();
             let typ_obj: PyObjectRef = zelf.class().to_owned().into();
             let class_reduce = typ_obj.get_attr(__reduce__, vm)?;
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/builtins/property.rs b/crates/vm/src/builtins/property.rs
index 246fb8635..001430db4 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/builtins/property.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/builtins/property.rs
@@ -45,22 +45,22 @@ pub struct PropertyArgs {
 
 impl GetDescriptor for PyProperty {
     fn descr_get(
-        zelf_obj: PyObjectRef,
-        obj: Option<PyObjectRef>,
-        _cls: Option<PyObjectRef>,
+        zelf_obj: &PyObject,
+        obj: Option<&PyObject>,
+        _cls: Option<&PyObject>,
         vm: &VirtualMachine,
     ) -> PyResult {
-        let (zelf, obj) = Self::_unwrap(&zelf_obj, obj, vm)?;
-        if vm.is_none(&obj) {
-            return Ok(zelf_obj);
+        let (zelf, obj) = Self::_unwrap(zelf_obj, obj, vm)?;
+        if vm.is_none(obj) {
+            return Ok(zelf_obj.to_owned());
         }
 
         // Clone and release lock before calling Python code to prevent deadlock
         let value = zelf.getter.read().clone();
         if let Some(getter) = value {
-            getter.call((obj,), vm)
+            getter.call((obj.to_owned(),), vm)
         } else {
-            let error_msg = zelf.format_property_error(&obj, "getter", vm)?;
+            let error_msg = zelf.format_property_error(obj, "getter", vm)?;
             Err(vm.new_attribute_error(error_msg))
         }
     }
@@ -235,7 +235,7 @@ impl PyProperty {
         // Create new property using py_new and init
         let new_prop = Self::slot_new(zelf.class().to_owned(), FuncArgs::default(), vm)?;
         let new_prop_ref = new_prop.downcast::<Self>().unwrap();
-        Self::init(new_prop_ref.clone(), args, vm)?;
+        Self::init(&new_prop_ref, args, vm)?;
 
         // Copy the name if it exists
         let value = zelf.name.read().clone();
@@ -364,7 +364,7 @@ impl Constructor for PyProperty {
 impl Initializer for PyProperty {
     type Args = PropertyArgs;
 
-    fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+    fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
         // Set doc and getter_doc flag
         let mut getter_doc = false;
 
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/builtins/set.rs b/crates/vm/src/builtins/set.rs
index 1ae920b86..ae4ddccdd 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/builtins/set.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/builtins/set.rs
@@ -905,7 +905,7 @@ impl DefaultConstructor for PySet {}
 impl Initializer for PySet {
     type Args = OptionalArg<PyObjectRef>;
 
-    fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, iterable: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+    fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, iterable: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
         zelf.clear();
         if let OptionalArg::Present(it) = iterable {
             zelf.update(PosArgs::new(vec![it]), vm)?;
@@ -1621,7 +1621,7 @@ fn vectorcall_set(
     let zelf: &Py<PyType> = zelf_obj.downcast_ref().unwrap();
     let obj = PySet::default().into_ref_with_type(vm, zelf.to_owned())?;
     let func_args = FuncArgs::from_vectorcall_owned(args, nargs, kwnames);
-    PySet::slot_init(obj.clone().into(), func_args, vm)?;
+    PySet::slot_init(obj.as_object(), func_args, vm)?;
     Ok(obj.into())
 }
 
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/builtins/staticmethod.rs b/crates/vm/src/builtins/staticmethod.rs
index cd1d945da..832b0db6b 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/builtins/staticmethod.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/builtins/staticmethod.rs
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@ use super::{
     },
 };
 use crate::{
-    AsObject, Context, Py, PyObjectRef, PyPayload, PyRef, PyResult, VirtualMachine,
+    AsObject, Context, Py, PyObject, PyObjectRef, PyPayload, PyRef, PyResult, VirtualMachine,
     class::{PyClassDef, PyClassImpl},
     common::lock::PyMutex,
     function::{FuncArgs, PySetterValue},
@@ -27,12 +27,12 @@ impl PyPayload for PyStaticMethod {
 
 impl GetDescriptor for PyStaticMethod {
     fn descr_get(
-        zelf: PyObjectRef,
-        obj: Option<PyObjectRef>,
-        _cls: Option<PyObjectRef>,
+        zelf: &PyObject,
+        obj: Option<&PyObject>,
+        _cls: Option<&PyObject>,
         vm: &VirtualMachine,
     ) -> PyResult {
-        let (zelf, _obj) = Self::_unwrap(&zelf, obj, vm)?;
+        let (zelf, _obj) = Self::_unwrap(zelf, obj, vm)?;
         Ok(zelf.callable.lock().clone())
     }
 }
@@ -83,7 +83,7 @@ impl PyStaticMethod {
 impl Initializer for PyStaticMethod {
     type Args = PyObjectRef;
 
-    fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, callable: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+    fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, callable: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
         *zelf.callable.lock() = callable.clone();
         functools_wraps(zelf.as_object(), &callable, vm)
     }
@@ -162,7 +162,7 @@ impl PyStaticMethod {
     fn __isabstractmethod__(&self, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyObjectRef {
         let callable = self.callable.lock().clone();
 
-        if let Ok(Some(is_abstract)) = vm.get_attribute_opt(callable, "__isabstractmethod__") {
+        if let Ok(Some(is_abstract)) = vm.get_attribute_opt(&callable, "__isabstractmethod__") {
             is_abstract
         } else {
             vm.ctx.new_bool(false).into()
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/builtins/str.rs b/crates/vm/src/builtins/str.rs
index cae410673..98bcd217c 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/builtins/str.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/builtins/str.rs
@@ -1047,7 +1047,7 @@ impl PyStr {
     }
 
     pub fn __mod__(&self, values: PyObjectRef, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<Wtf8Buf> {
-        cformat_string(vm, self.as_wtf8(), values)
+        cformat_string(vm, self.as_wtf8(), &values)
     }
 
     #[pymethod]
@@ -1557,7 +1557,7 @@ impl PyStr {
 
     #[pymethod]
     fn encode(zelf: PyRef<Self>, args: EncodeArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<PyBytesRef> {
-        encode_string(zelf, args.encoding, args.errors, vm)
+        encode_string(zelf, args.encoding.as_deref(), args.errors, vm)
     }
 
     #[pymethod]
@@ -1746,11 +1746,11 @@ struct EncodeArgs {
 
 pub(crate) fn encode_string(
     s: PyStrRef,
-    encoding: Option<PyUtf8StrRef>,
+    encoding: Option<&Py<PyUtf8Str>>,
     errors: Option<PyUtf8StrRef>,
     vm: &VirtualMachine,
 ) -> PyResult<PyBytesRef> {
-    let encoding = match encoding.as_ref() {
+    let encoding = match encoding {
         None => crate::codecs::DEFAULT_ENCODING,
         Some(s) => s.as_str(),
     };
@@ -1859,7 +1859,7 @@ pub(crate) struct FindArgs {
 
 impl FindArgs {
     fn get_value(self, len: usize) -> (PyStrRef, core::ops::Range<usize>) {
-        let range = adjust_indices(self.start, self.end, len);
+        let range = adjust_indices(self.start.as_deref(), self.end.as_deref(), len);
         (self.sub, range)
     }
 }
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/builtins/super.rs b/crates/vm/src/builtins/super.rs
index 0da7b60d2..6ab0ff04a 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/builtins/super.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/builtins/super.rs
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ See also [CPython source code.](https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/50b48572d
 
 use super::{PyStr, PyType, PyTypeRef};
 use crate::{
-    AsObject, Context, Py, PyObject, PyObjectRef, PyPayload, PyRef, PyResult, VirtualMachine,
+    AsObject, Context, Py, PyObject, PyObjectRef, PyPayload, PyResult, VirtualMachine,
     builtins::function::PyCell,
     class::PyClassImpl,
     common::lock::PyRwLock,
@@ -71,7 +71,7 @@ impl Initializer for PySuper {
     type Args = InitArgs;
 
     fn init(
-        zelf: PyRef<Self>,
+        zelf: &Py<Self>,
         Self::Args { py_type, py_obj }: Self::Args,
         vm: &VirtualMachine,
     ) -> PyResult<()> {
@@ -203,8 +203,12 @@ impl GetAttr for PySuper {
                     .call_get_descriptor_specific(
                         &descr,
                         // Only pass 'obj' param if this is instance-mode super (See https://bugs.python.org/issue743267)
-                        if obj.is(&start_type) { None } else { Some(obj) },
-                        Some(start_type.as_object().to_owned()),
+                        if obj.is(&start_type) {
+                            None
+                        } else {
+                            Some(&obj)
+                        },
+                        Some(start_type.as_object()),
                     )
                     .unwrap_or(Ok(descr));
             }
@@ -215,26 +219,26 @@ impl GetAttr for PySuper {
 
 impl GetDescriptor for PySuper {
     fn descr_get(
-        zelf_obj: PyObjectRef,
-        obj: Option<PyObjectRef>,
-        _cls: Option<PyObjectRef>,
+        zelf_obj: &PyObject,
+        obj: Option<&PyObject>,
+        _cls: Option<&PyObject>,
         vm: &VirtualMachine,
     ) -> PyResult {
-        let (zelf, obj) = Self::_unwrap(&zelf_obj, obj, vm)?;
-        if vm.is_none(&obj) || zelf.inner.read().obj.is_some() {
-            return Ok(zelf_obj);
+        let (zelf, obj) = Self::_unwrap(zelf_obj, obj, vm)?;
+        if vm.is_none(obj) || zelf.inner.read().obj.is_some() {
+            return Ok(zelf_obj.to_owned());
         }
         let zelf_class = zelf.as_object().class();
         if zelf_class.is(vm.ctx.types.super_type) {
             let typ = zelf.inner.read().typ.clone();
             Ok(Self {
-                inner: PyRwLock::new(PySuperInner::new(typ, obj, vm)?),
+                inner: PyRwLock::new(PySuperInner::new(typ, obj.to_owned(), vm)?),
             }
             .into_ref(&vm.ctx)
             .into())
         } else {
             let typ = zelf.inner.read().typ.clone();
-            PyType::call(zelf.class(), (typ, obj).into_args(vm), vm)
+            PyType::call(zelf.class(), (typ, obj.to_owned()).into_args(vm), vm)
         }
     }
 }
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/builtins/type.rs b/crates/vm/src/builtins/type.rs
index b74e0d465..ef6a8a6b1 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/builtins/type.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/builtins/type.rs
@@ -2450,7 +2450,7 @@ impl Constructor for PyType {
             for obj in bases.iter() {
                 if obj.downcast_ref::<Self>().is_none() {
                     if vm
-                        .get_attribute_opt(obj.clone(), identifier!(vm, __mro_entries__))?
+                        .get_attribute_opt(obj, identifier!(vm, __mro_entries__))?
                         .is_some()
                     {
                         return Err(vm.new_type_error(
@@ -2958,7 +2958,7 @@ impl Initializer for PyType {
     type Args = FuncArgs;
 
     // type_init
-    fn slot_init(_zelf: PyObjectRef, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+    fn slot_init(_zelf: &PyObject, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
         // type.__init__() takes 1 or 3 arguments
         if args.args.len() == 1 && !args.kwargs.is_empty() {
             return Err(vm.new_type_error("type.__init__() takes no keyword arguments"));
@@ -2969,7 +2969,7 @@ impl Initializer for PyType {
         Ok(())
     }
 
-    fn init(_zelf: PyRef<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+    fn init(_zelf: &Py<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
         unreachable!("slot_init is defined")
     }
 }
@@ -3002,8 +3002,12 @@ impl GetAttr for PyType {
             if has_descr_set {
                 let descr_get = attr_class.slots.descr_get.load();
                 if let Some(descr_get) = descr_get {
-                    let mcl = mcl.to_owned().into();
-                    return descr_get(attr.clone(), Some(zelf.to_owned().into()), Some(mcl), vm);
+                    return descr_get(
+                        attr.as_object(),
+                        Some(zelf.as_object()),
+                        Some(mcl.as_object()),
+                        vm,
+                    );
                 }
             }
         }
@@ -3013,7 +3017,7 @@ impl GetAttr for PyType {
         if let Some(attr) = zelf_attr {
             let descr_get = attr.class().slots.descr_get.load();
             if let Some(descr_get) = descr_get {
-                descr_get(attr, None, Some(zelf.to_owned().into()), vm)
+                descr_get(attr.as_object(), None, Some(zelf.as_object()), vm)
             } else {
                 Ok(attr)
             }
@@ -3056,7 +3060,7 @@ impl Py<PyType> {
             // If it's a descriptor, call its __get__ method
             let descr_get = doc_attr.class().slots.descr_get.load();
             if let Some(descr_get) = descr_get {
-                descr_get(doc_attr, None, Some(self.to_owned().into()), vm)
+                descr_get(doc_attr.as_object(), None, Some(self.as_object()), vm)
             } else {
                 Ok(doc_attr)
             }
@@ -3236,7 +3240,7 @@ impl Callable for PyType {
         }
 
         if let Some(init_method) = obj.class().slots.init.load() {
-            init_method(obj.clone(), init_args, vm)?;
+            init_method(&obj, init_args, vm)?;
         }
         Ok(obj)
     }
@@ -3313,7 +3317,7 @@ fn subtype_get_dict(obj: PyObjectRef, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult {
     if let Some(base_type) = base {
         if let Some(descr) = get_dict_descriptor(&base_type, vm) {
             // Call the descriptor's tp_descr_get
-            vm.call_get_descriptor(&descr, obj.clone())
+            vm.call_get_descriptor(&descr, &obj)
                 .unwrap_or_else(|| Err(raise_dict_descriptor_error(&obj, vm)))
         } else {
             Err(raise_dict_descriptor_error(&obj, vm))
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/builtins/union.rs b/crates/vm/src/builtins/union.rs
index 3a779ae89..a30c87f2c 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/builtins/union.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/builtins/union.rs
@@ -65,19 +65,19 @@ impl PyUnion {
             }
 
             if vm
-                .get_attribute_opt(obj.to_owned(), identifier!(vm, __origin__))?
+                .get_attribute_opt(obj, identifier!(vm, __origin__))?
                 .is_some()
                 && vm
-                    .get_attribute_opt(obj.to_owned(), identifier!(vm, __args__))?
+                    .get_attribute_opt(obj, identifier!(vm, __args__))?
                     .is_some()
             {
                 return Ok(obj.repr(vm)?.to_string());
             }
 
             match (
-                vm.get_attribute_opt(obj.to_owned(), identifier!(vm, __qualname__))?
+                vm.get_attribute_opt(obj, identifier!(vm, __qualname__))?
                     .and_then(|o| o.downcast_ref::<PyStr>().map(|n| n.to_string())),
-                vm.get_attribute_opt(obj.to_owned(), identifier!(vm, __module__))?
+                vm.get_attribute_opt(obj, identifier!(vm, __module__))?
                     .and_then(|o| o.downcast_ref::<PyStr>().map(|m| m.to_string())),
             ) {
                 (None, _) | (_, None) => Ok(obj.repr(vm)?.to_string()),
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/builtins/weakref.rs b/crates/vm/src/builtins/weakref.rs
index ebe5673ee..33b5f48a2 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/builtins/weakref.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/builtins/weakref.rs
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ use crate::common::{
     hash::{self, PyHash},
 };
 use crate::{
-    AsObject, Context, Py, PyObject, PyObjectRef, PyPayload, PyRef, PyResult, VirtualMachine,
+    AsObject, Context, Py, PyObject, PyObjectRef, PyPayload, PyResult, VirtualMachine,
     class::PyClassImpl,
     function::{FuncArgs, OptionalArg, PyArithmeticValue, PyComparisonValue},
     types::{
@@ -67,7 +67,7 @@ impl Initializer for PyWeak {
     type Args = WeakNewArgs;
 
     // weakref_tp_init: accepts args but does nothing (all init done in slot_new)
-    fn init(_zelf: PyRef<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+    fn init(_zelf: &Py<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
         Ok(())
     }
 }
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/bytes_inner.rs b/crates/vm/src/bytes_inner.rs
index 9640bc106..6e995f7b1 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/bytes_inner.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/bytes_inner.rs
@@ -64,7 +64,7 @@ impl ByteInnerNewOptions {
         errors: OptionalArg<PyUtf8StrRef>,
         vm: &VirtualMachine,
     ) -> PyResult<PyBytesInner> {
-        let bytes = pystr::encode_string(s, Some(encoding), errors.into_option(), vm)?;
+        let bytes = pystr::encode_string(s, Some(&encoding), errors.into_option(), vm)?;
         Ok(bytes.as_bytes().to_vec().into())
     }
 
@@ -211,7 +211,7 @@ impl ByteInnerFindOptions {
         vm: &VirtualMachine,
     ) -> PyResult<(Vec<u8>, core::ops::Range<usize>)> {
         let sub = self.sub.into_vec(vm)?;
-        let range = anystr::adjust_indices(self.start, self.end, len);
+        let range = anystr::adjust_indices(self.start.as_deref(), self.end.as_deref(), len);
         Ok((sub, range))
     }
 }
@@ -1024,7 +1024,7 @@ impl PyBytesInner {
     }
 
     pub fn cformat(&self, values: PyObjectRef, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<Vec<u8>> {
-        cformat_bytes(vm, self.elements.as_slice(), values)
+        cformat_bytes(vm, self.elements.as_slice(), &values)
     }
 
     pub fn mul(&self, n: isize, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<Vec<u8>> {
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/cformat.rs b/crates/vm/src/cformat.rs
index b37f1f6d0..d5ce89a66 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/cformat.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/cformat.rs
@@ -362,7 +362,7 @@ fn specifier_error(vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyBaseExceptionRef {
 pub(crate) fn cformat_bytes(
     vm: &VirtualMachine,
     format_string: &[u8],
-    values_obj: PyObjectRef,
+    values_obj: &PyObject,
 ) -> PyResult<Vec<u8>> {
     let mut format = CFormatBytes::parse_from_bytes(format_string)
         .map_err(|err| vm.new_value_error(err.to_string()))?;
@@ -420,12 +420,16 @@ pub(crate) fn cformat_bytes(
     }
 
     // tuple
-    let values = if let Some(tup) = values_obj.downcast_ref::<tuple::PyTuple>() {
-        tup.as_slice()
-    } else {
-        core::slice::from_ref(&values_obj)
-    };
-    let mut value_iter = values.iter().map(|v| &**v);
+    let mut slice_iter;
+    let mut once_iter;
+    let mut value_iter: &mut dyn Iterator<Item = &PyObject> =
+        if let Some(tup) = values_obj.downcast_ref::<tuple::PyTuple>() {
+            slice_iter = tup.as_slice().iter().map(|v| &**v);
+            &mut slice_iter
+        } else {
+            once_iter = core::iter::once(values_obj);
+            &mut once_iter
+        };
 
     for (_, part) in format {
         match part {
@@ -460,7 +464,7 @@ pub(crate) fn cformat_bytes(
 pub(crate) fn cformat_string(
     vm: &VirtualMachine,
     format_string: &Wtf8,
-    values_obj: PyObjectRef,
+    values_obj: &PyObject,
 ) -> PyResult<Wtf8Buf> {
     let format = CFormatWtf8::parse_from_wtf8(format_string)
         .map_err(|err| vm.new_value_error(err.to_string()))?;
@@ -516,13 +520,16 @@ pub(crate) fn cformat_string(
     }
 
     // tuple
-    let values = if let Some(tup) = values_obj.downcast_ref::<tuple::PyTuple>() {
-        tup.as_slice()
-    } else {
-        core::slice::from_ref(&values_obj)
-    };
-
-    let mut value_iter = values.iter().map(|v| &**v);
+    let mut slice_iter;
+    let mut once_iter;
+    let mut value_iter: &mut dyn Iterator<Item = &PyObject> =
+        if let Some(tup) = values_obj.downcast_ref::<tuple::PyTuple>() {
+            slice_iter = tup.as_slice().iter().map(|v| &**v);
+            &mut slice_iter
+        } else {
+            once_iter = core::iter::once(values_obj);
+            &mut once_iter
+        };
 
     for (_, part) in format {
         match part {
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/codecs.rs b/crates/vm/src/codecs.rs
index 6e919ff56..40781a087 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/codecs.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/codecs.rs
@@ -72,7 +72,7 @@ impl PyCodec {
     }
 
     pub fn is_text_codec(&self, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<bool> {
-        let is_text = vm.get_attribute_opt(self.0.clone().into(), "_is_text_encoding")?;
+        let is_text = vm.get_attribute_opt(self.0.as_object(), "_is_text_encoding")?;
         is_text.map_or(Ok(true), |is_text| is_text.try_to_bool(vm))
     }
 
@@ -215,7 +215,7 @@ impl CodecsRegistry {
         Ok(())
     }
 
-    pub fn unregister(&self, search_function: PyObjectRef) {
+    pub fn unregister(&self, search_function: &PyObject) {
         let mut inner = self.inner.write();
         // Do nothing if search_path is not created yet or was cleared.
         if inner.search_path.is_empty() {
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/exception_group.rs b/crates/vm/src/exception_group.rs
index 58261712a..85e9eaf1a 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/exception_group.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/exception_group.rs
@@ -383,7 +383,7 @@ pub(super) mod types {
     impl Initializer for PyBaseExceptionGroup {
         type Args = FuncArgs;
 
-        fn slot_init(zelf: PyObjectRef, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn slot_init(zelf: &PyObject, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             if !args.kwargs.is_empty() {
                 return Err(vm.new_type_error(format!(
                     "{} does not take keyword arguments",
@@ -393,7 +393,7 @@ pub(super) mod types {
             PyBaseException::slot_init(zelf, args, vm)
         }
 
-        fn init(_zelf: PyRef<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn init(_zelf: &Py<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             unreachable!("slot_init is overridden")
         }
     }
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/exceptions.rs b/crates/vm/src/exceptions.rs
index 4195b366d..e199bb464 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/exceptions.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/exceptions.rs
@@ -99,7 +99,7 @@ impl VirtualMachine {
     // These functions are natively free function in CPython - not methods of PyException
 
     /// Print exception chain by calling sys.excepthook
-    pub fn print_exception(&self, exc: PyBaseExceptionRef) {
+    pub fn print_exception(&self, exc: &Py<PyBaseException>) {
         let vm = self;
         let write_fallback = |exc, errstr| {
             if let Ok(stderr) = sys::get_stderr(vm) {
@@ -113,13 +113,13 @@ impl VirtualMachine {
             }
         };
         if let Ok(excepthook) = vm.sys_module.get_attr("excepthook", vm) {
-            let (exc_type, exc_val, exc_tb) = vm.split_exception(exc.clone());
+            let (exc_type, exc_val, exc_tb) = vm.split_exception(exc.to_owned());
             if let Err(eh_exc) = excepthook.call((exc_type, exc_val, exc_tb), vm) {
                 write_fallback(&eh_exc, "Error in sys.excepthook:");
-                write_fallback(&exc, "Original exception was:");
+                write_fallback(exc, "Original exception was:");
             }
         } else {
-            write_fallback(&exc, "missing sys.excepthook");
+            write_fallback(exc, "missing sys.excepthook");
         }
     }
 
@@ -865,7 +865,7 @@ impl Constructor for PyBaseException {
 impl Initializer for PyBaseException {
     type Args = FuncArgs;
 
-    fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+    fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
         *zelf.args.write() = PyTuple::new_ref(args.args, &vm.ctx);
         Ok(())
     }
@@ -1810,20 +1810,20 @@ pub(super) mod types {
 
     impl Initializer for PySystemExit {
         type Args = FuncArgs;
-        fn slot_init(zelf: PyObjectRef, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn slot_init(zelf: &PyObject, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             // Call BaseException_init first (handles args)
             let code = match args.args.len() {
                 0 => vm.ctx.none(),
                 1 => args.args[0].clone(),
                 _ => vm.ctx.new_tuple(args.args.clone()).into(),
             };
-            PyBaseException::slot_init(zelf.clone(), args, vm)?;
+            PyBaseException::slot_init(zelf, args, vm)?;
             let exc: &Py<Self> = zelf.downcast_ref::<Self>().unwrap();
             exc.code.swap_to_temporary_refs(Some(code), vm);
             Ok(())
         }
 
-        fn init(_zelf: PyRef<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn init(_zelf: &Py<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             unreachable!("slot_init is defined")
         }
     }
@@ -1898,18 +1898,18 @@ pub(super) mod types {
 
     impl Initializer for PyStopIteration {
         type Args = FuncArgs;
-        fn slot_init(zelf: PyObjectRef, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn slot_init(zelf: &PyObject, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             let value = match args.args.len() {
                 0 => vm.ctx.none(),
                 _ => args.args[0].clone(),
             };
-            PyBaseException::slot_init(zelf.clone(), args, vm)?;
+            PyBaseException::slot_init(zelf, args, vm)?;
             let exc: &Py<Self> = zelf.downcast_ref::<Self>().unwrap();
             exc.value.swap_to_temporary_refs(Some(value), vm);
             Ok(())
         }
 
-        fn init(_zelf: PyRef<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn init(_zelf: &Py<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             unreachable!("slot_init is defined")
         }
     }
@@ -1998,7 +1998,7 @@ pub(super) mod types {
     impl Initializer for PyAttributeError {
         type Args = FuncArgs;
 
-        fn slot_init(zelf: PyObjectRef, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn slot_init(zelf: &PyObject, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             // Only 'name' and 'obj' kwargs are allowed
             let mut kwargs = args.kwargs.clone();
             let name = kwargs.swap_remove("name");
@@ -2014,7 +2014,7 @@ pub(super) mod types {
 
             // Pass args without kwargs to BaseException_init
             let base_args = FuncArgs::new(args.args, KwArgs::default());
-            PyBaseException::slot_init(zelf.clone(), base_args, vm)?;
+            PyBaseException::slot_init(zelf, base_args, vm)?;
 
             // Set attributes
             set_attrs!(zelf, vm,
@@ -2024,7 +2024,7 @@ pub(super) mod types {
             Ok(())
         }
 
-        fn init(_zelf: PyRef<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn init(_zelf: &Py<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             unreachable!("slot_init is defined")
         }
     }
@@ -2066,7 +2066,7 @@ pub(super) mod types {
     impl Initializer for PyImportError {
         type Args = FuncArgs;
 
-        fn slot_init(zelf: PyObjectRef, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn slot_init(zelf: &PyObject, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             // Only 'name', 'path', 'name_from' kwargs are allowed
             let mut kwargs = args.kwargs.clone();
             let name = kwargs.swap_remove("name");
@@ -2099,7 +2099,7 @@ pub(super) mod types {
             PyBaseException::slot_init(zelf, args, vm)
         }
 
-        fn init(_zelf: PyRef<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn init(_zelf: &Py<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             unreachable!("slot_init is defined")
         }
     }
@@ -2183,7 +2183,7 @@ pub(super) mod types {
 
     impl Initializer for PyNameError {
         type Args = FuncArgs;
-        fn slot_init(zelf: PyObjectRef, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn slot_init(zelf: &PyObject, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             // Only 'name' kwarg is allowed
             let mut kwargs = args.kwargs.clone();
             let name = kwargs.swap_remove("name");
@@ -2198,7 +2198,7 @@ pub(super) mod types {
 
             // Pass args without kwargs to BaseException_init
             let base_args = FuncArgs::new(args.args, KwArgs::default());
-            PyBaseException::slot_init(zelf.clone(), base_args, vm)?;
+            PyBaseException::slot_init(zelf, base_args, vm)?;
 
             // Set name attribute if provided
             if let Some(name) = name {
@@ -2207,7 +2207,7 @@ pub(super) mod types {
             Ok(())
         }
 
-        fn init(_zelf: PyRef<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn init(_zelf: &Py<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             unreachable!("slot_init is defined")
         }
     }
@@ -2357,7 +2357,7 @@ pub(super) mod types {
             }
             let payload = Self::py_new(&cls, args.clone(), vm)?;
             let obj = payload.into_ref_with_type_lazy_dict(vm, cls)?;
-            oserror_init(obj.as_object().to_owned(), args, vm)?;
+            oserror_init(obj.as_object(), args, vm)?;
             Ok(obj.into())
         }
     }
@@ -2365,14 +2365,14 @@ pub(super) mod types {
     fn oserror_use_init(cls: &Py<PyType>) -> bool {
         let init = cls.slots.init.load();
         let new = cls.slots.new.load();
-        let slot_init: fn(PyObjectRef, FuncArgs, &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> =
+        let slot_init: fn(&PyObject, FuncArgs, &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> =
             PyOSError::slot_init;
         let slot_new: fn(PyTypeRef, FuncArgs, &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult = PyOSError::slot_new;
         !matches!(init, Some(f) if core::ptr::fn_addr_eq(f, slot_init))
             && matches!(new, Some(f) if core::ptr::fn_addr_eq(f, slot_new))
     }
 
-    fn oserror_init(zelf: PyObjectRef, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+    fn oserror_init(zelf: &PyObject, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
         let len = args.args.len();
         let mut new_args = args;
 
@@ -2458,7 +2458,7 @@ pub(super) mod types {
     impl Initializer for PyOSError {
         type Args = FuncArgs;
 
-        fn slot_init(zelf: PyObjectRef, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn slot_init(zelf: &PyObject, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             if !oserror_use_init(zelf.class()) {
                 return Ok(());
             }
@@ -2471,7 +2471,7 @@ pub(super) mod types {
             oserror_init(zelf, args, vm)
         }
 
-        fn init(_zelf: PyRef<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn init(_zelf: &Py<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             unreachable!("slot_init is defined")
         }
     }
@@ -2899,7 +2899,7 @@ pub(super) mod types {
     impl Initializer for PySyntaxError {
         type Args = FuncArgs;
 
-        fn slot_init(zelf: PyObjectRef, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn slot_init(zelf: &PyObject, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             let len = args.args.len();
             let new_args = args;
 
@@ -2954,7 +2954,7 @@ pub(super) mod types {
             PyBaseException::slot_init(zelf, new_args, vm)
         }
 
-        fn init(_zelf: PyRef<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn init(_zelf: &Py<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             unreachable!("slot_init is defined")
         }
     }
@@ -3138,7 +3138,7 @@ pub(super) mod types {
     impl Initializer for PyUnicodeDecodeError {
         type Args = FuncArgs;
 
-        fn slot_init(zelf: PyObjectRef, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn slot_init(zelf: &PyObject, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             parse_tuple_arity(&args, 5, vm)?;
             type Args = (PyStrRef, ArgBytesLike, isize, isize, PyStrRef);
             let (encoding, object, start, end, reason): Args = args.bind(vm)?;
@@ -3152,7 +3152,7 @@ pub(super) mod types {
             Ok(())
         }
 
-        fn init(_zelf: PyRef<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn init(_zelf: &Py<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             unreachable!("slot_init is defined")
         }
     }
@@ -3201,7 +3201,7 @@ pub(super) mod types {
     impl Initializer for PyUnicodeEncodeError {
         type Args = FuncArgs;
 
-        fn slot_init(zelf: PyObjectRef, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn slot_init(zelf: &PyObject, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             parse_tuple_arity(&args, 5, vm)?;
             type Args = (PyStrRef, PyStrRef, isize, isize, PyStrRef);
             let (encoding, object, start, end, reason): Args = args.bind(vm)?;
@@ -3215,7 +3215,7 @@ pub(super) mod types {
             Ok(())
         }
 
-        fn init(_zelf: PyRef<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn init(_zelf: &Py<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             unreachable!("slot_init is defined")
         }
     }
@@ -3263,7 +3263,7 @@ pub(super) mod types {
     impl Initializer for PyUnicodeTranslateError {
         type Args = FuncArgs;
 
-        fn slot_init(zelf: PyObjectRef, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn slot_init(zelf: &PyObject, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             parse_tuple_arity(&args, 4, vm)?;
             type Args = (PyStrRef, isize, isize, PyStrRef);
             let (object, start, end, reason): Args = args.bind(vm)?;
@@ -3276,7 +3276,7 @@ pub(super) mod types {
             Ok(())
         }
 
-        fn init(_zelf: PyRef<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn init(_zelf: &Py<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             unreachable!("slot_init is defined")
         }
     }
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/frame.rs b/crates/vm/src/frame.rs
index cf847d82b..42aaa6555 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/frame.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/frame.rs
@@ -2437,14 +2437,14 @@ impl FrameObject {
     /// `proxy.setdefault(key, default)`.
     pub(crate) fn framelocalsproxy_setdefault(
         &self,
-        key: PyObjectRef,
+        key: &PyObject,
         default: PyObjectRef,
         vm: &VirtualMachine,
     ) -> PyResult {
-        match self.framelocalsproxy_getitem(key.clone(), vm) {
+        match self.framelocalsproxy_getitem(key.to_owned(), vm) {
             Ok(value) => Ok(value),
             Err(e) if e.fast_isinstance(vm.ctx.exceptions.key_error) => {
-                self.framelocalsproxy_setitem(&key, default.clone(), vm)?;
+                self.framelocalsproxy_setitem(key, default.clone(), vm)?;
                 Ok(default)
             }
             Err(e) => Err(e),
@@ -3982,7 +3982,7 @@ impl ExecutingFrame<'_> {
                 let close_result = if let Some(coro) = self.builtin_coro(jen) {
                     coro.close(jen, vm).map(|_| ())
                 } else {
-                    match vm.get_attribute_opt(jen.to_owned(), "close") {
+                    match vm.get_attribute_opt(jen, "close") {
                         Ok(Some(close_meth)) => close_meth.call((), vm).map(|_| ()),
                         Ok(None) => Ok(()),
                         Err(e) => {
@@ -4028,8 +4028,7 @@ impl ExecutingFrame<'_> {
                 let thrower = if let Some(coro) = self.builtin_coro(jen) {
                     Some(Either::A(coro))
                 } else {
-                    vm.get_attribute_opt(jen.to_owned(), "throw")?
-                        .map(Either::B)
+                    vm.get_attribute_opt(jen, "throw")?.map(Either::B)
                 };
                 if let Some(thrower) = thrower {
                     let ret = match thrower {
@@ -5219,7 +5218,7 @@ impl ExecutingFrame<'_> {
                     if nargs_val > 0 {
                         // Get __match_args__ from the class
                         let match_args =
-                            vm.get_attribute_opt(cls.clone(), identifier!(vm, __match_args__))?;
+                            vm.get_attribute_opt(&cls, identifier!(vm, __match_args__))?;
 
                         if let Some(match_args) = match_args {
                             // Convert to tuple
@@ -7459,13 +7458,13 @@ impl ExecutingFrame<'_> {
                             let obj_arg = if self_obj.is(start_type.as_object()) {
                                 None
                             } else {
-                                Some(self_obj.to_owned())
+                                Some(self_obj)
                             };
                             let result = vm
                                 .call_get_descriptor_specific(
                                     &descr,
                                     obj_arg,
-                                    Some(start_type.as_object().to_owned()),
+                                    Some(start_type.as_object()),
                                 )
                                 .unwrap_or(Ok(descr))?;
                             found = Some(result);
@@ -7521,9 +7520,9 @@ impl ExecutingFrame<'_> {
                             } else if let Some(descr_get) = descr_cls.slots.descr_get.load() {
                                 // Has __get__ but not METHOD_DESCRIPTOR: bind it
                                 let bound = descr_get(
-                                    descr,
-                                    Some(self_val.clone()),
-                                    Some(start_type.as_object().to_owned()),
+                                    &descr,
+                                    Some(&self_val),
+                                    Some(start_type.as_object()),
                                     vm,
                                 )?;
                                 found = Some((bound, false));
@@ -8445,7 +8444,7 @@ impl ExecutingFrame<'_> {
         let name = self.code.names[idx as usize];
 
         // Load attribute, and transform any error into import error.
-        if let Some(obj) = vm.get_attribute_opt(module.to_owned(), name)? {
+        if let Some(obj) = vm.get_attribute_opt(module, name)? {
             return Ok(obj);
         }
         // fallback to importing '{module.__name__}.{name}' from sys.modules
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/import.rs b/crates/vm/src/import.rs
index 97c0e7a3f..ba2be4366 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/import.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/import.rs
@@ -164,8 +164,8 @@ pub fn import_source(vm: &VirtualMachine, module_name: &str, content: &str) -> P
 /// import path below and by [`crate::VirtualMachine::import`]'s
 /// `sys.modules`-cache fast path).
 pub(crate) fn is_module_initializing(module: &PyObject, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<bool> {
-    match vm.get_attribute_opt(module.to_owned(), vm.ctx.intern_str("__spec__"))? {
-        Some(spec) => match vm.get_attribute_opt(spec, vm.ctx.intern_str("_initializing"))? {
+    match vm.get_attribute_opt(module, vm.ctx.intern_str("__spec__"))? {
+        Some(spec) => match vm.get_attribute_opt(&spec, vm.ctx.intern_str("_initializing"))? {
             Some(v) => v.try_to_bool(vm),
             None => Ok(false),
         },
@@ -383,7 +383,7 @@ pub(crate) fn is_stdlib_module_name(name: &PyObject, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyR
 /// PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject
 pub(crate) fn import_module_level(
     name: &Py<PyStr>,
-    globals: Option<PyObjectRef>,
+    globals: Option<&PyObject>,
     fromlist: Option<PyObjectRef>,
     level: i32,
     vm: &VirtualMachine,
@@ -411,12 +411,11 @@ pub(crate) fn import_module_level(
     let abs_name = if level > 0 {
         // When globals is not provided (Rust None), raise KeyError
         // matching resolve_name() where globals==NULL
-        if globals.is_none() {
+        let Some(globals_ref) = globals else {
             return Err(vm.new_key_error(vm.ctx.new_str("'__name__' not in globals").into()));
-        }
-        let globals_ref = globals.as_ref().unwrap();
+        };
         // When globals is Python None, treat like empty mapping
-        let empty_dict_obj;
+        let empty_dict_obj: PyObjectRef;
         let globals_ref = if vm.is_none(globals_ref) {
             empty_dict_obj = vm.ctx.new_dict().into();
             &empty_dict_obj
@@ -464,7 +463,7 @@ pub(crate) fn import_module_level(
         // crash inside _handle_fromlist; IMPORT_FROM handles per-attribute
         // errors with proper ImportError conversion.
         let has_path = vm
-            .get_attribute_opt(module.clone(), vm.ctx.intern_str("__path__"))?
+            .get_attribute_opt(&module, vm.ctx.intern_str("__path__"))?
             .is_some();
         if has_path {
             let handle_fromlist = vm.importlib.get_attr("_handle_fromlist", vm)?;
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/protocol/object.rs b/crates/vm/src/protocol/object.rs
index 24e449875..d491d698c 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/protocol/object.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/protocol/object.rs
@@ -263,8 +263,8 @@ impl PyObject {
                 if let Some(descr_get) = descr_get
                     && descr_cls.slots.descr_set.load().is_some()
                 {
-                    let cls = obj_cls.to_owned().into();
-                    return descr_get(descr, Some(self.to_owned()), Some(cls), vm).map(Some);
+                    return descr_get(descr.as_object(), Some(self), Some(obj_cls.as_object()), vm)
+                        .map(Some);
                 }
                 Some((descr, descr_get))
             }
@@ -286,8 +286,7 @@ impl PyObject {
         } else if let Some((attr, descr_get)) = cls_attr {
             match descr_get {
                 Some(descr_get) => {
-                    let cls = obj_cls.to_owned().into();
-                    descr_get(attr, Some(self.to_owned()), Some(cls), vm).map(Some)
+                    descr_get(attr.as_object(), Some(self), Some(obj_cls.as_object()), vm).map(Some)
                 }
                 None => Ok(Some(attr)),
             }
@@ -497,7 +496,7 @@ impl PyObject {
     /// Other exceptions are propagated.
     fn abstract_get_bases(&self, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<Option<PyTupleRef>> {
         Ok(vm
-            .get_attribute_opt(self.to_owned(), identifier!(vm, __bases__))?
+            .get_attribute_opt(self, identifier!(vm, __bases__))?
             // If we get `None` then AttributeError was masked.
             .and_then(|bases| {
                 // Check if it's a tuple
@@ -641,8 +640,7 @@ impl PyObject {
             // PyType_Check(cls) - cls is a type object
             let mut retval = self.class().is_subtype(cls);
             if !retval
-                && let Some(i_cls) =
-                    vm.get_attribute_opt(self.to_owned(), identifier!(vm, __class__))?
+                && let Some(i_cls) = vm.get_attribute_opt(self, identifier!(vm, __class__))?
                 && let Ok(i_cls_type) = PyTypeRef::try_from_object(vm, i_cls)
                 && !i_cls_type.is(self.class())
             {
@@ -656,9 +654,7 @@ impl PyObject {
                 "isinstance() arg 2 must be a type, a tuple of types, or a union",
             )?;
 
-            if let Some(i_cls) =
-                vm.get_attribute_opt(self.to_owned(), identifier!(vm, __class__))?
-            {
+            if let Some(i_cls) = vm.get_attribute_opt(self, identifier!(vm, __class__))? {
                 i_cls.abstract_issubclass(cls, vm)
             } else {
                 Ok(false)
@@ -776,7 +772,7 @@ impl PyObject {
                 }
 
                 if let Some(class_getitem) =
-                    vm.get_attribute_opt(self.to_owned(), identifier!(vm, __class_getitem__))?
+                    vm.get_attribute_opt(self, identifier!(vm, __class_getitem__))?
                     && !vm.is_none(&class_getitem)
                 {
                     return class_getitem.call((needle,), vm);
@@ -864,8 +860,7 @@ impl PyObject {
 
         let descr_get = res.class().slots.descr_get.load();
         if let Some(descr_get) = descr_get {
-            let obj_cls = obj_cls.to_owned().into();
-            descr_get(res, Some(self.to_owned()), Some(obj_cls), vm).map(Some)
+            descr_get(res.as_object(), Some(self), Some(obj_cls.as_object()), vm).map(Some)
         } else {
             Ok(Some(res))
         }
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_abc.rs b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_abc.rs
index ffe0735cd..3abf74567 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_abc.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_abc.rs
@@ -180,7 +180,7 @@ mod _abc {
                 while let PyIterReturn::Return(key) = iter.next(vm)? {
                     // Try to get the attribute from cls - key should be a string
                     if let Some(key_str) = key.downcast_ref::<PyStr>()
-                        && let Some(value) = vm.get_attribute_opt(cls.to_owned(), key_str)?
+                        && let Some(value) = vm.get_attribute_opt(cls, key_str)?
                         && let Ok(is_abstract) = value.get_attr("__isabstractmethod__", vm)
                         && is_abstract.try_to_bool(vm)?
                     {
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast.rs b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast.rs
index eaf9cb1cc..69bb344c1 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast.rs
@@ -81,7 +81,7 @@ fn is_ast_instance(vm: &VirtualMachine, object: &PyObject) -> PyResult<bool> {
 }
 
 fn get_node_field(vm: &VirtualMachine, obj: &PyObject, field: &'static str, typ: &str) -> PyResult {
-    vm.get_attribute_opt(obj.to_owned(), field)?
+    vm.get_attribute_opt(obj, field)?
         .ok_or_else(|| vm.new_type_error(format!(r#"required field "{field}" missing from {typ}"#)))
 }
 
@@ -134,7 +134,7 @@ fn get_node_field_opt(
     field: &'static str,
 ) -> PyResult<Option<PyObjectRef>> {
     Ok(vm
-        .get_attribute_opt(obj.to_owned(), field)?
+        .get_attribute_opt(obj, field)?
         .filter(|obj| !vm.is_none(obj)))
 }
 
@@ -156,7 +156,7 @@ fn get_node_list_field_object(
     field: &'static str,
     typ: &str,
 ) -> PyResult<PyObjectRef> {
-    let Some(value) = vm.get_attribute_opt(obj.to_owned(), field)? else {
+    let Some(value) = vm.get_attribute_opt(obj, field)? else {
         return Ok(vm.ctx.new_list(Vec::new()).into());
     };
     value.downcast_ref::<PyList>().ok_or_else(|| {
@@ -422,7 +422,7 @@ fn get_attribute_from_field(
     let field = field
         .downcast::<PyStr>()
         .map_err(|_| vm.new_type_error("attribute name must be string"))?;
-    vm.get_attribute_opt(obj.to_owned(), &field)
+    vm.get_attribute_opt(obj, &field)
 }
 
 #[derive(Default)]
@@ -527,7 +527,7 @@ fn copy_ast_passthrough_fields(
         };
 
     for field in fields {
-        if let Some(value) = vm.get_attribute_opt(source.to_owned(), *field)? {
+        if let Some(value) = vm.get_attribute_opt(source, *field)? {
             target.set_attr(*field, value, vm)?;
         }
     }
@@ -569,7 +569,7 @@ fn get_ast_location_field(
     field: &'static str,
 ) -> PyResult<Option<PyObjectRef>> {
     Ok(vm
-        .get_attribute_opt(object.to_owned(), field)?
+        .get_attribute_opt(object, field)?
         .filter(|value| !vm.is_none(value)))
 }
 
@@ -705,50 +705,50 @@ fn synthetic_source_from_ast_object(vm: &VirtualMachine, object: &PyObject) -> P
 fn range_from_object(
     vm: &VirtualMachine,
     source_file: &SourceFile,
-    object: PyObjectRef,
+    object: &PyObject,
     name: &str,
 ) -> PyResult<TextRange> {
-    range_from_object_impl(vm, source_file, &object, name, false)
+    range_from_object_impl(vm, source_file, object, name, false)
 }
 
 fn type_param_range_from_object(
     vm: &VirtualMachine,
     source_file: &SourceFile,
-    object: PyObjectRef,
+    object: &PyObject,
 ) -> PyResult<TextRange> {
-    range_from_object_impl(vm, source_file, &object, "type_param", true)
+    range_from_object_impl(vm, source_file, object, "type_param", true)
 }
 
 fn expr_range_from_object(
     vm: &VirtualMachine,
     source_file: &SourceFile,
-    object: PyObjectRef,
+    object: &PyObject,
 ) -> PyResult<TextRange> {
-    range_from_object_impl(vm, source_file, &object, "expr", false)
+    range_from_object_impl(vm, source_file, object, "expr", false)
 }
 
 fn stmt_range_from_object(
     vm: &VirtualMachine,
     source_file: &SourceFile,
-    object: PyObjectRef,
+    object: &PyObject,
 ) -> PyResult<TextRange> {
-    range_from_object_impl(vm, source_file, &object, "stmt", false)
+    range_from_object_impl(vm, source_file, object, "stmt", false)
 }
 
 fn pattern_range_from_object(
     vm: &VirtualMachine,
     source_file: &SourceFile,
-    object: PyObjectRef,
+    object: &PyObject,
 ) -> PyResult<TextRange> {
-    range_from_object_impl(vm, source_file, &object, "pattern", true)
+    range_from_object_impl(vm, source_file, object, "pattern", true)
 }
 
 fn excepthandler_range_from_object(
     vm: &VirtualMachine,
     source_file: &SourceFile,
-    object: PyObjectRef,
+    object: &PyObject,
 ) -> PyResult<TextRange> {
-    range_from_object_impl(vm, source_file, &object, "excepthandler", false)
+    range_from_object_impl(vm, source_file, object, "excepthandler", false)
 }
 
 fn excepthandler_range_from_object_unvalidated(
@@ -1562,7 +1562,7 @@ fn node_list_field(
     object: &PyObject,
     field: &'static str,
 ) -> Vec<PyObjectRef> {
-    vm.get_attribute_opt(object.to_owned(), field)
+    vm.get_attribute_opt(object, field)
         .ok()
         .flatten()
         .and_then(|value| {
@@ -1578,7 +1578,7 @@ fn node_optional_field(
     object: &PyObject,
     field: &'static str,
 ) -> Option<PyObjectRef> {
-    vm.get_attribute_opt(object.to_owned(), field)
+    vm.get_attribute_opt(object, field)
         .ok()
         .flatten()
         .filter(|value| !vm.is_none(value))
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/constant.rs b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/constant.rs
index 5985a0017..a41aeadea 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/constant.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/constant.rs
@@ -137,9 +137,9 @@ pub(super) fn invalid_constant_type(expr: &ast::Expr) -> Option<Box<str>> {
 
 pub(super) fn runtime_string_from_pyobject(
     vm: &VirtualMachine,
-    object: PyObjectRef,
+    object: &PyObject,
 ) -> (Option<Box<str>>, Option<Vec<u8>>) {
-    runtime_string_from_object(vm, &object)
+    runtime_string_from_object(vm, object)
 }
 
 pub(super) fn runtime_string_object(
@@ -367,7 +367,7 @@ fn first_invalid_constant_type(vm: &VirtualMachine, value_object: &PyObject) ->
                     ))
                 })?;
             for item in tuple.iter() {
-                if let Some(invalid_type) = first_invalid_constant_type_opt(vm, item.clone())? {
+                if let Some(invalid_type) = first_invalid_constant_type_opt(vm, item)? {
                     return Ok(invalid_type);
                 }
             }
@@ -377,7 +377,7 @@ fn first_invalid_constant_type(vm: &VirtualMachine, value_object: &PyObject) ->
         vm.with_recursion(" during compilation", || {
             let set = value_object.to_owned().downcast::<PyFrozenSet>().unwrap();
             for item in set.elements() {
-                if let Some(invalid_type) = first_invalid_constant_type_opt(vm, item)? {
+                if let Some(invalid_type) = first_invalid_constant_type_opt(vm, &item)? {
                     return Ok(invalid_type);
                 }
             }
@@ -390,7 +390,7 @@ fn first_invalid_constant_type(vm: &VirtualMachine, value_object: &PyObject) ->
 
 fn first_invalid_constant_type_opt(
     vm: &VirtualMachine,
-    value_object: PyObjectRef,
+    value_object: &PyObject,
 ) -> PyResult<Option<String>> {
     let cls = value_object.class();
     if cls.is(vm.ctx.types.none_type)
@@ -405,7 +405,7 @@ fn first_invalid_constant_type_opt(
         return Ok(None);
     }
     if cls.is(vm.ctx.types.tuple_type) || cls.is(vm.ctx.types.frozenset_type) {
-        return first_invalid_constant_type(vm, &value_object).map(Some);
+        return first_invalid_constant_type(vm, value_object).map(Some);
     }
     Ok(Some(cls.name().to_owned()))
 }
@@ -499,7 +499,7 @@ impl Node for Constant {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "Constant")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "Constant")?;
         constant_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/exception.rs b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/exception.rs
index e09f52e40..4f179513d 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/exception.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/exception.rs
@@ -30,7 +30,7 @@ impl Node for ast::ExceptHandler {
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
         ensure_excepthandler_node(vm, &object)?;
-        let range = excepthandler_range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone())?;
+        let range = excepthandler_range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object)?;
         Ok(Self::ExceptHandler(except_handler_from_object_with_range(
             vm,
             source_file,
@@ -67,12 +67,12 @@ fn except_handler_from_object_with_range(
 pub(super) fn except_handler_from_object_unvalidated_range(
     vm: &VirtualMachine,
     source_file: &SourceFile,
-    object: PyObjectRef,
+    object: &PyObject,
 ) -> PyResult<ast::ExceptHandler> {
-    ensure_excepthandler_node(vm, &object)?;
-    let range = excepthandler_range_from_object_unvalidated(vm, source_file, &object)?;
+    ensure_excepthandler_node(vm, object)?;
+    let range = excepthandler_range_from_object_unvalidated(vm, source_file, object)?;
     Ok(ast::ExceptHandler::ExceptHandler(
-        except_handler_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)?,
+        except_handler_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, object, range)?,
     ))
 }
 
@@ -111,7 +111,7 @@ impl Node for ast::ExceptHandlerExceptHandler {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "ExceptHandler")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "ExceptHandler")?;
         except_handler_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/expression.rs b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/expression.rs
index 1334b8132..6d5e21302 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/expression.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/expression.rs
@@ -158,7 +158,7 @@ impl Node for ast::Expr {
                 object.repr(vm)?
             )));
         };
-        let range = expr_range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone())?;
+        let range = expr_range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object)?;
         Ok(match kind {
             ExprKind::BoolOp => Self::BoolOp(expr_bool_op_from_object_with_range(
                 vm,
@@ -391,7 +391,7 @@ impl Node for ast::ExprBoolOp {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "BoolOp")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "BoolOp")?;
         expr_bool_op_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -436,7 +436,7 @@ impl Node for ast::ExprNamed {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "NamedExpr")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "NamedExpr")?;
         expr_named_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -489,7 +489,7 @@ impl Node for ast::ExprBinOp {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "BinOp")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "BinOp")?;
         expr_bin_op_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -537,7 +537,7 @@ impl Node for ast::ExprUnaryOp {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "UnaryOp")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "UnaryOp")?;
         expr_unary_op_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -589,7 +589,7 @@ impl Node for ast::ExprLambda {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "Lambda")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "Lambda")?;
         expr_lambda_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -638,7 +638,7 @@ impl Node for ast::ExprIf {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "IfExp")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "IfExp")?;
         expr_if_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -707,7 +707,7 @@ impl Node for ast::ExprDict {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "Dict")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "Dict")?;
         expr_dict_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -754,7 +754,7 @@ impl Node for ast::ExprSet {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "Set")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "Set")?;
         expr_set_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -799,7 +799,7 @@ impl Node for ast::ExprListComp {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "ListComp")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "ListComp")?;
         expr_list_comp_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -844,7 +844,7 @@ impl Node for ast::ExprSetComp {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "SetComp")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "SetComp")?;
         expr_set_comp_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -899,7 +899,7 @@ impl Node for ast::ExprDictComp {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "DictComp")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "DictComp")?;
         expr_dict_comp_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -946,7 +946,7 @@ impl Node for ast::ExprGenerator {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "GeneratorExp")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "GeneratorExp")?;
         expr_generator_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -986,7 +986,7 @@ impl Node for ast::ExprAwait {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "Await")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "Await")?;
         expr_await_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -1029,7 +1029,7 @@ impl Node for ast::ExprYield {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "Yield")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "Yield")?;
         expr_yield_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -1070,7 +1070,7 @@ impl Node for ast::ExprYieldFrom {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "YieldFrom")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "YieldFrom")?;
         expr_yield_from_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -1127,7 +1127,7 @@ impl Node for ast::ExprCompare {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "Compare")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "Compare")?;
         expr_compare_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -1189,7 +1189,7 @@ impl Node for ast::ExprCall {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "Call")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "Call")?;
         expr_call_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -1242,7 +1242,7 @@ impl Node for ast::ExprAttribute {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "Attribute")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "Attribute")?;
         expr_attribute_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -1294,7 +1294,7 @@ impl Node for ast::ExprSubscript {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "Subscript")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "Subscript")?;
         expr_subscript_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -1342,7 +1342,7 @@ impl Node for ast::ExprStarred {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "Starred")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "Starred")?;
         expr_starred_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -1391,7 +1391,7 @@ impl Node for ast::ExprName {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "Name")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "Name")?;
         expr_name_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -1448,7 +1448,7 @@ impl Node for ast::ExprList {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "List")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "List")?;
         expr_list_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -1507,7 +1507,7 @@ impl Node for ast::ExprTuple {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "Tuple")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "Tuple")?;
         expr_tuple_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -1562,7 +1562,7 @@ impl Node for ast::ExprSlice {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "Slice")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "Slice")?;
         expr_slice_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/other.rs b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/other.rs
index d943f7cf6..0da6be10c 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/other.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/other.rs
@@ -94,7 +94,7 @@ impl Node for ast::Alias {
             asname: get_node_field_opt(vm, &object, "asname")?
                 .map(|obj| Node::ast_from_object(vm, source_file, obj))
                 .transpose()?,
-            range: range_from_object(vm, source_file, object, "alias")?,
+            range: range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "alias")?,
         })
     }
 }
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/parameter.rs b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/parameter.rs
index 03ff20f12..ea324eda4 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/parameter.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/parameter.rs
@@ -196,9 +196,9 @@ impl Node for ast::Parameter {
         let type_comment = get_ast_string_field_opt(vm, &_object, "type_comment")?;
         let (runtime_type_comment, runtime_type_comment_bytes) = type_comment
             .map_or((None, None), |type_comment| {
-                super::constant::runtime_string_from_pyobject(vm, type_comment)
+                super::constant::runtime_string_from_pyobject(vm, &type_comment)
             });
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, _object, "arg")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &_object, "arg")?;
         Ok(Self {
             node_index: Default::default(),
             name,
@@ -241,7 +241,7 @@ impl Node for ast::Keyword {
                 .map(|obj| Node::ast_from_object(vm, source_file, obj))
                 .transpose()?,
             value: get_required_node_field(vm, source_file, &_object, "value", "keyword")?,
-            range: range_from_object(vm, source_file, _object, "keyword")?,
+            range: range_from_object(vm, source_file, &_object, "keyword")?,
         })
     }
 }
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/pattern.rs b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/pattern.rs
index f09db1023..667bb5fcf 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/pattern.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/pattern.rs
@@ -106,7 +106,7 @@ impl Node for ast::Pattern {
                 object.repr(vm)?
             )));
         };
-        let range = pattern_range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone())?;
+        let range = pattern_range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object)?;
         Ok(match kind {
             PatternKind::Value => Self::MatchValue(pattern_match_value_from_object_with_range(
                 vm,
@@ -236,7 +236,7 @@ impl Node for ast::PatternMatchValue {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "MatchValue")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "MatchValue")?;
         pattern_match_value_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -284,7 +284,7 @@ impl Node for ast::PatternMatchSingleton {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "MatchSingleton")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "MatchSingleton")?;
         pattern_match_singleton_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -361,7 +361,7 @@ impl Node for ast::PatternMatchSequence {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "MatchSequence")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "MatchSequence")?;
         pattern_match_sequence_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -431,7 +431,7 @@ impl Node for ast::PatternMatchMapping {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "MatchMapping")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "MatchMapping")?;
         pattern_match_mapping_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -528,7 +528,7 @@ impl Node for ast::PatternMatchClass {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "MatchClass")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "MatchClass")?;
         pattern_match_class_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -636,7 +636,7 @@ impl Node for ast::PatternMatchStar {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "MatchStar")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "MatchStar")?;
         pattern_match_star_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -685,7 +685,7 @@ impl Node for ast::PatternMatchAs {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "MatchAs")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "MatchAs")?;
         pattern_match_as_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -732,7 +732,7 @@ impl Node for ast::PatternMatchOr {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "MatchOr")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "MatchOr")?;
         pattern_match_or_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/python.rs b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/python.rs
index 89858a416..3e00a60f3 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/python.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/python.rs
@@ -362,7 +362,7 @@ pub(crate) mod _ast {
 
             // type.__call__ does not invoke slot_init after slot_new
             // for types with a custom slot_new, so we must call it here.
-            Self::slot_init(zelf.clone(), args, vm)?;
+            Self::slot_init(&zelf, args, vm)?;
 
             Ok(zelf)
         }
@@ -375,7 +375,7 @@ pub(crate) mod _ast {
     impl Initializer for NodeAst {
         type Args = FuncArgs;
 
-        fn slot_init(zelf: PyObjectRef, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn slot_init(zelf: &PyObject, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             let fields = zelf
                 .class()
                 .get_attr(vm.ctx.intern_str("_fields"))
@@ -409,7 +409,7 @@ pub(crate) mod _ast {
 
             for (i, arg) in args.args.into_iter().enumerate() {
                 let name = fields_seq.get_item(i as isize, vm)?;
-                ast_set_attr(&zelf, &name, arg, vm)?;
+                ast_set_attr(zelf, &name, arg, vm)?;
                 ast_replace_set_discard(&remaining_fields, &name, vm)?;
             }
             for (key, value) in args.kwargs {
@@ -475,7 +475,7 @@ Support for arbitrary keyword arguments is deprecated and will be removed in Pyt
                         } else if ftype.fast_isinstance(vm.ctx.types.generic_alias_type) {
                             // List field (list[T]) — default to []
                             let empty_list: PyObjectRef = vm.ctx.new_list(vec![]).into();
-                            ast_set_attr(&zelf, &field, empty_list, vm)?;
+                            ast_set_attr(zelf, &field, empty_list, vm)?;
                         } else if ftype.is(&expr_ctx_type) {
                             // expr_context — default to Load()
                             let load_type =
@@ -485,7 +485,7 @@ Support for arbitrary keyword arguments is deprecated and will be removed in Pyt
                                 .unwrap_or_else(|| {
                                     vm.ctx.new_base_object(load_type, Some(vm.ctx.new_dict()))
                                 });
-                            ast_set_attr(&zelf, &field, load_instance, vm)?;
+                            ast_set_attr(zelf, &field, load_instance, vm)?;
                         } else {
                             // Required field missing: emit DeprecationWarning.
                             let field_repr = field.repr(vm)?;
@@ -525,7 +525,7 @@ This will become an error in Python 3.15.",
             Ok(())
         }
 
-        fn init(_zelf: PyRef<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn init(_zelf: &Py<Self>, _args: Self::Args, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             unreachable!("slot_init is defined")
         }
     }
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/statement.rs b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/statement.rs
index 043c641a3..cfdf3e5f5 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/statement.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/statement.rs
@@ -49,7 +49,7 @@ fn runtime_stmt_type_comment(
     type_comment: Option<PyObjectRef>,
 ) -> (Option<Box<str>>, Option<Vec<u8>>) {
     type_comment.map_or((None, None), |type_comment| {
-        super::constant::runtime_string_from_pyobject(vm, type_comment)
+        super::constant::runtime_string_from_pyobject(vm, &type_comment)
     })
 }
 
@@ -192,7 +192,7 @@ impl Node for ast::Stmt {
                 object.repr(vm)?
             )));
         };
-        let range = stmt_range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone())?;
+        let range = stmt_range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object)?;
         Ok(match kind {
             StmtKind::FunctionDef { is_async } => {
                 Self::FunctionDef(stmt_function_def_from_object_with_range(
@@ -466,7 +466,7 @@ impl Node for ast::StmtFunctionDef {
         } else {
             "FunctionDef"
         };
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, _object.clone(), typ)?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &_object, typ)?;
         stmt_function_def_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &_object, range, is_async)
     }
 }
@@ -576,7 +576,7 @@ impl Node for ast::StmtClassDef {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         _object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, _object.clone(), "ClassDef")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &_object, "ClassDef")?;
         stmt_class_def_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &_object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -617,7 +617,7 @@ impl Node for ast::StmtReturn {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         _object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, _object.clone(), "Return")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &_object, "Return")?;
         stmt_return_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &_object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -664,7 +664,7 @@ impl Node for ast::StmtDelete {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         _object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, _object.clone(), "Delete")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &_object, "Delete")?;
         stmt_delete_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &_object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -729,7 +729,7 @@ impl Node for ast::StmtAssign {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "Assign")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "Assign")?;
         stmt_assign_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -785,7 +785,7 @@ impl Node for ast::StmtTypeAlias {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         _object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, _object.clone(), "TypeAlias")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &_object, "TypeAlias")?;
         stmt_type_alias_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &_object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -837,7 +837,7 @@ impl Node for ast::StmtAugAssign {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         _object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, _object.clone(), "AugAssign")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &_object, "AugAssign")?;
         stmt_aug_assign_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &_object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -903,7 +903,7 @@ impl Node for ast::StmtAnnAssign {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         _object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, _object.clone(), "AnnAssign")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &_object, "AnnAssign")?;
         stmt_ann_assign_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &_object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -1002,7 +1002,7 @@ impl Node for ast::StmtFor {
         );
         let is_async = is_node_instance(vm, &_object, pyast::NodeStmtAsyncFor::static_type())?;
         let typ = if is_async { "AsyncFor" } else { "For" };
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, _object.clone(), typ)?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &_object, typ)?;
         stmt_for_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &_object, range, is_async)
     }
 }
@@ -1067,7 +1067,7 @@ impl Node for ast::StmtWhile {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         _object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, _object.clone(), "While")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &_object, "While")?;
         stmt_while_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &_object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -1101,7 +1101,7 @@ impl Node for ast::StmtIf {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "If")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "If")?;
         elif_else_clause::ast_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -1179,7 +1179,7 @@ impl Node for ast::StmtWith {
         );
         let is_async = is_node_instance(vm, &_object, pyast::NodeStmtAsyncWith::static_type())?;
         let typ = if is_async { "AsyncWith" } else { "With" };
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, _object.clone(), typ)?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &_object, typ)?;
         stmt_with_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &_object, range, is_async)
     }
 }
@@ -1222,7 +1222,7 @@ impl Node for ast::StmtMatch {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         _object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, _object.clone(), "Match")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &_object, "Match")?;
         stmt_match_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &_object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -1269,7 +1269,7 @@ impl Node for ast::StmtRaise {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         _object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, _object.clone(), "Raise")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &_object, "Raise")?;
         stmt_raise_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &_object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -1337,7 +1337,7 @@ fn except_handler_list_from_field(
         } else {
             Some(vm.with_recursion(&recursion_context, || {
                 if is_try_star {
-                    except_handler_from_object_unvalidated_range(vm, source_file, item)
+                    except_handler_from_object_unvalidated_range(vm, source_file, &item)
                 } else {
                     Node::ast_from_object(vm, source_file, item)
                 }
@@ -1423,7 +1423,7 @@ impl Node for ast::StmtTry {
                 || is_node_instance(vm, &_object, pyast::NodeStmtTryStar::static_type())?
         );
         let typ = if is_star { "TryStar" } else { "Try" };
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, _object.clone(), typ)?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &_object, typ)?;
         stmt_try_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &_object, range, is_star)
     }
 }
@@ -1469,7 +1469,7 @@ impl Node for ast::StmtAssert {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         _object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, _object.clone(), "Assert")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &_object, "Assert")?;
         stmt_assert_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &_object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -1511,7 +1511,7 @@ impl Node for ast::StmtImport {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         _object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, _object.clone(), "Import")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &_object, "Import")?;
         stmt_import_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &_object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -1586,7 +1586,7 @@ impl Node for ast::StmtImportFrom {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         _object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, _object.clone(), "ImportFrom")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &_object, "ImportFrom")?;
         stmt_import_from_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &_object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -1625,7 +1625,7 @@ impl Node for ast::StmtGlobal {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         _object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, _object.clone(), "Global")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &_object, "Global")?;
         stmt_global_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &_object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -1664,7 +1664,7 @@ impl Node for ast::StmtNonlocal {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         _object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, _object.clone(), "Nonlocal")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &_object, "Nonlocal")?;
         stmt_nonlocal_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &_object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -1703,7 +1703,7 @@ impl Node for ast::StmtExpr {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         _object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, _object.clone(), "Expr")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &_object, "Expr")?;
         stmt_expr_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &_object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -1755,7 +1755,7 @@ impl Node for ast::StmtPass {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         _object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, _object, "Pass")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &_object, "Pass")?;
         Ok(stmt_pass_from_object_with_range(range))
     }
 }
@@ -1786,7 +1786,7 @@ impl Node for ast::StmtBreak {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         _object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, _object, "Break")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &_object, "Break")?;
         Ok(stmt_break_from_object_with_range(range))
     }
 }
@@ -1817,7 +1817,7 @@ impl Node for ast::StmtContinue {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         _object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, _object, "Continue")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &_object, "Continue")?;
         Ok(stmt_continue_from_object_with_range(range))
     }
 }
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/string.rs b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/string.rs
index 3c7bd270d..553b235c4 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/string.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/string.rs
@@ -571,7 +571,7 @@ impl Node for JoinedStr {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "JoinedStr")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "JoinedStr")?;
         joined_str_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -670,7 +670,7 @@ impl Node for FormattedValue {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "FormattedValue")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "FormattedValue")?;
         formatted_value_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -1081,7 +1081,7 @@ impl Node for TemplateStr {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "TemplateStr")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "TemplateStr")?;
         template_str_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -1188,7 +1188,7 @@ impl Node for TStringInterpolation {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone(), "Interpolation")?;
+        let range = range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object, "Interpolation")?;
         tstring_interpolation_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/type_parameters.rs b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/type_parameters.rs
index 01a666aa4..a15e564e5 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/type_parameters.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ast/type_parameters.rs
@@ -97,7 +97,7 @@ impl Node for ast::TypeParam {
                 object.repr(vm)?
             )));
         };
-        let range = type_param_range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone())?;
+        let range = type_param_range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object)?;
         Ok(match kind {
             TypeParamKind::TypeVar => Self::TypeVar(type_var_from_object_with_range(
                 vm,
@@ -166,7 +166,7 @@ impl Node for ast::TypeParamTypeVar {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = type_param_range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone())?;
+        let range = type_param_range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object)?;
         type_var_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -213,7 +213,7 @@ impl Node for ast::TypeParamParamSpec {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = type_param_range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone())?;
+        let range = type_param_range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object)?;
         param_spec_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
@@ -263,7 +263,7 @@ impl Node for ast::TypeParamTypeVarTuple {
         source_file: &SourceFile,
         object: PyObjectRef,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
-        let range = type_param_range_from_object(vm, source_file, object.clone())?;
+        let range = type_param_range_from_object(vm, source_file, &object)?;
         type_var_tuple_from_object_with_range(vm, source_file, &object, range)
     }
 }
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_codecs.rs b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_codecs.rs
index ef4d863a7..af57a433c 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_codecs.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_codecs.rs
@@ -27,7 +27,7 @@ mod _codecs {
 
     #[pyfunction]
     fn unregister(search_function: PyObjectRef, vm: &VirtualMachine) {
-        vm.state.codec_registry.unregister(search_function);
+        vm.state.codec_registry.unregister(&search_function);
     }
 
     #[pyfunction]
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_collections.rs b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_collections.rs
index 9761d1ddb..de2789bca 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_collections.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_collections.rs
@@ -460,7 +460,7 @@ mod _collections {
         type Args = PyDequeOptions;
 
         fn init(
-            zelf: PyRef<Self>,
+            zelf: &Py<Self>,
             PyDequeOptions { iterable, maxlen }: Self::Args,
             vm: &VirtualMachine,
         ) -> PyResult<()> {
@@ -1002,7 +1002,7 @@ mod _collections {
     impl Initializer for PyDefaultDict {
         type Args = FuncArgs;
 
-        fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, mut args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, mut args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             let default_factory = args.take_positional().map_or(Ok(None), |factory| {
                 let is_none = factory.is(&vm.ctx.none());
 
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_collections/ordered_dict.rs b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_collections/ordered_dict.rs
index 56302c8b9..51cb463b0 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_collections/ordered_dict.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_collections/ordered_dict.rs
@@ -602,14 +602,14 @@ pub(crate) mod ordered_dict {
     impl Initializer for PyOrderedDict {
         type Args = FuncArgs;
 
-        fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             if args.args.len() > 1 {
                 return Err(vm.new_type_error(format!(
                     "OrderedDict expected at most 1 argument, got {}",
                     args.args.len()
                 )));
             }
-            Self::update(zelf, args, vm)
+            Self::update(zelf.to_owned(), args, vm)
         }
     }
 
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ctypes.rs b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ctypes.rs
index d1fae5a5c..f33abe0b0 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ctypes.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ctypes.rs
@@ -266,13 +266,14 @@ pub(crate) mod _ctypes {
     #[cfg(target_os = "windows")]
     #[pyattr(name = "COMError", once)]
     fn com_error(vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyTypeRef {
+        use crate::PyObject;
         use crate::builtins::type_::PyAttributes;
         use crate::function::FuncArgs;
         use crate::types::{PyTypeFlags, PyTypeSlots};
 
         // Sets hresult, text, details as instance attributes in __init__
         // This function has InitFunc signature for direct slots.init use
-        fn comerror_init(zelf: PyObjectRef, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn comerror_init(zelf: &PyObject, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             let (hresult, text, details): (
                 Option<PyObjectRef>,
                 Option<PyObjectRef>,
@@ -831,13 +832,13 @@ pub(crate) mod _ctypes {
         ctype: PyObjectRef,
         vm: &VirtualMachine,
     ) -> PyResult {
-        super::function::cast_impl(&obj, src, ctype, vm)
+        super::function::cast_impl(&obj, src, &ctype, vm)
     }
 
     /// Python-level cast function (PYFUNCTYPE wrapper)
     #[pyfunction]
     fn cast(obj: PyObjectRef, typ: PyObjectRef, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult {
-        super::function::cast_impl(&obj, obj.clone(), typ, vm)
+        super::function::cast_impl(&obj, obj.clone(), &typ, vm)
     }
 
     /// Return buffer interface information for a ctypes type or object.
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ctypes/array.rs b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ctypes/array.rs
index fe7c96a83..12df5a1d6 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ctypes/array.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ctypes/array.rs
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ use super::base::{CDATA_BUFFER_METHODS, PyCData};
 use crate::common::lock::LazyLock;
 use crate::sliceable::SaturatedSliceIter;
 use crate::{
-    AsObject, Py, PyObject, PyObjectRef, PyPayload, PyRef, PyResult, TryFromObject, VirtualMachine,
+    AsObject, Py, PyObject, PyObjectRef, PyPayload, PyResult, TryFromObject, VirtualMachine,
     atomic_func,
     builtins::{
         PyBytes, PyInt, PyList, PySlice, PyStr, PyType, PyTypeRef, genericalias::PyGenericAlias,
@@ -175,7 +175,7 @@ pub(super) struct PyCArrayType(PyType);
 impl Initializer for PyCArrayType {
     type Args = FuncArgs;
 
-    fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, _args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+    fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, _args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
         // zelf is the newly created array type (e.g., T in "class T(Array)")
         let new_type: &PyType = &zelf.0;
 
@@ -450,10 +450,10 @@ impl Constructor for PyCArray {
 impl Initializer for PyCArray {
     type Args = FuncArgs;
 
-    fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+    fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
         // Re-initialize array elements when __init__ is called
         for (i, value) in args.args.iter().enumerate() {
-            Self::setitem_by_index(&zelf, i as isize, value, vm)?;
+            Self::setitem_by_index(zelf, i as isize, value, vm)?;
         }
         Ok(())
     }
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ctypes/base.rs b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ctypes/base.rs
index e56171c3b..777dc8ca4 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ctypes/base.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ctypes/base.rs
@@ -1452,18 +1452,19 @@ impl Representable for PyCField {
 /// PyCField_get
 impl GetDescriptor for PyCField {
     fn descr_get(
-        zelf: PyObjectRef,
-        obj: Option<PyObjectRef>,
-        _cls: Option<PyObjectRef>,
+        zelf: &PyObject,
+        obj: Option<&PyObject>,
+        _cls: Option<&PyObject>,
         vm: &VirtualMachine,
     ) -> PyResult {
         let zelf = zelf
+            .to_owned()
             .downcast::<Self>()
             .map_err(|_| vm.new_type_error("expected CField"))?;
 
         // If obj is None, return the descriptor itself (class attribute access)
         let obj = match obj {
-            Some(obj) if !vm.is_none(&obj) => obj,
+            Some(obj) if !vm.is_none(obj) => obj.to_owned(),
             _ => return Ok(zelf.into()),
         };
 
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ctypes/function.rs b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ctypes/function.rs
index c029ab203..b2667190a 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ctypes/function.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ctypes/function.rs
@@ -311,8 +311,8 @@ pub(super) struct PyCFuncPtrType(PyType);
 impl Initializer for PyCFuncPtrType {
     type Args = FuncArgs;
 
-    fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, _args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
-        let obj: PyObjectRef = zelf.into();
+    fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, _args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        let obj: PyObjectRef = zelf.to_owned().into();
         let new_type: PyTypeRef = obj
             .downcast()
             .map_err(|_| vm.new_type_error("expected type"))?;
@@ -532,11 +532,11 @@ fn cast_check_pointertype(ctype: &PyObject, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> bool {
 pub(super) fn cast_impl(
     obj: &PyObject,
     src: PyObjectRef,
-    ctype: PyObjectRef,
+    ctype: &PyObject,
     vm: &VirtualMachine,
 ) -> PyResult {
     // 1. cast_check_pointertype
-    if !cast_check_pointertype(&ctype, vm) {
+    if !cast_check_pointertype(ctype, vm) {
         return Err(vm.new_type_error(format!(
             "cast() argument 2 must be a pointer type, not {}",
             ctype.class().name()
@@ -820,8 +820,8 @@ impl Constructor for PyCFuncPtr {
             // Create the thunk (C-callable wrapper for the Python function)
             let thunk = PyCThunk::new(
                 first_arg.clone(),
-                class_argtypes.clone(),
-                class_restype.clone(),
+                class_argtypes.as_deref(),
+                class_restype.as_deref(),
                 class_flags,
                 vm,
             )?;
@@ -865,7 +865,7 @@ impl Constructor for PyCFuncPtr {
 fn handle_internal_func(addr: usize, args: &FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> Option<PyResult> {
     if addr == INTERNAL_CAST_ADDR {
         let result: PyResult<(PyObjectRef, PyObjectRef, PyObjectRef)> = args.clone().bind(vm);
-        return Some(result.and_then(|(obj, src, ctype)| cast_impl(&obj, src, ctype, vm)));
+        return Some(result.and_then(|(obj, src, ctype)| cast_impl(&obj, src, &ctype, vm)));
     }
 
     if addr == INTERNAL_STRING_AT_ADDR {
@@ -1940,18 +1940,18 @@ impl Debug for PyCThunk {
 impl PyCThunk {
     pub fn new(
         callable: PyObjectRef,
-        arg_types: Option<PyObjectRef>,
-        res_type: Option<PyObjectRef>,
+        arg_types: Option<&PyObject>,
+        res_type: Option<&PyObject>,
         flags: u32,
         vm: &VirtualMachine,
     ) -> PyResult<Self> {
         let arg_type_vec: Vec<PyTypeRef> = match arg_types {
-            Some(args) if !vm.is_none(&args) => extract_arg_types(&args, vm)?,
+            Some(args) if !vm.is_none(args) => extract_arg_types(args, vm)?,
             _ => Vec::new(),
         };
 
         let res_type_ref: Option<PyTypeRef> = match res_type {
-            Some(ref rt) if !vm.is_none(rt) => Some(
+            Some(rt) if !vm.is_none(rt) => Some(
                 rt.to_owned()
                     .downcast::<PyType>()
                     .map_err(|_| vm.new_type_error("restype must be a ctypes type"))?,
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ctypes/pointer.rs b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ctypes/pointer.rs
index f2fe5e881..050a1f65d 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ctypes/pointer.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ctypes/pointer.rs
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ use crate::atomic_func;
 use crate::protocol::{BufferDescriptor, PyBuffer, PyMappingMethods, PyNumberMethods};
 use crate::types::{AsBuffer, AsMapping, AsNumber, Constructor, Initializer};
 use crate::{
-    AsObject, Py, PyObject, PyObjectRef, PyPayload, PyRef, PyResult, VirtualMachine,
+    AsObject, Py, PyObject, PyObjectRef, PyPayload, PyResult, VirtualMachine,
     builtins::{PyBytes, PyInt, PyList, PySlice, PyStr, PyType, PyTypeRef},
     class::StaticType,
     function::{FuncArgs, OptionalArg},
@@ -24,9 +24,9 @@ pub(super) struct PyCPointerType(PyType);
 impl Initializer for PyCPointerType {
     type Args = FuncArgs;
 
-    fn init(zelf: crate::PyRef<Self>, _args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+    fn init(zelf: &crate::Py<Self>, _args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
         // Get the type as PyTypeRef
-        let obj: PyObjectRef = zelf.clone().into();
+        let obj: PyObjectRef = zelf.to_owned().into();
         let new_type: PyTypeRef = obj
             .downcast()
             .map_err(|_| vm.new_type_error("expected type"))?;
@@ -79,7 +79,7 @@ impl Initializer for PyCPointerType {
             && let Ok(target_type) = type_attr.downcast::<PyType>()
             && let Some(mut target_info) = target_type.get_type_data_mut::<StgInfo>()
         {
-            let zelf_obj: PyObjectRef = zelf.into();
+            let zelf_obj: PyObjectRef = zelf.to_owned().into();
             target_info.pointer_type = Some(zelf_obj);
         }
 
@@ -281,12 +281,12 @@ impl Constructor for PyCPointer {
 impl Initializer for PyCPointer {
     type Args = (OptionalArg<PyObjectRef>,);
 
-    fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+    fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
         let (value,) = args;
         if let OptionalArg::Present(val) = value
             && !vm.is_none(&val)
         {
-            Self::set_contents(&zelf, val, vm)?;
+            Self::set_contents(zelf, val, vm)?;
         }
         Ok(())
     }
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ctypes/simple.rs b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ctypes/simple.rs
index 01f8f38c7..0ade154e3 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ctypes/simple.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ctypes/simple.rs
@@ -525,7 +525,7 @@ impl AsNumber for PyCSimpleType {
 impl Initializer for PyCSimpleType {
     type Args = FuncArgs;
 
-    fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+    fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
         // type_init requires exactly 3 positional arguments: name, bases, dict
         if args.args.len() != 3 {
             return Err(vm.new_type_error(format!(
@@ -1052,10 +1052,10 @@ impl Constructor for PyCSimple {
 impl Initializer for PyCSimple {
     type Args = (OptionalArg,);
 
-    fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+    fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
         // If an argument is provided, update the value
         if let Some(value) = args.0.into_option() {
-            Self::set_value(zelf.into(), value, vm)?;
+            Self::set_value(zelf.to_owned().into(), value, vm)?;
         }
         Ok(())
     }
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ctypes/structure.rs b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ctypes/structure.rs
index 474d9eaca..41c7af418 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ctypes/structure.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ctypes/structure.rs
@@ -66,9 +66,9 @@ impl Constructor for PyCStructType {
 impl Initializer for PyCStructType {
     type Args = FuncArgs;
 
-    fn init(zelf: crate::PyRef<Self>, _args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+    fn init(zelf: &crate::Py<Self>, _args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
         // Get the type as PyTypeRef by converting PyRef<Self> -> PyObjectRef -> PyRef<PyType>
-        let obj: PyObjectRef = zelf.into();
+        let obj: PyObjectRef = zelf.to_owned().into();
         let new_type: PyTypeRef = obj
             .downcast()
             .map_err(|_| vm.new_type_error("expected type"))?;
@@ -768,13 +768,13 @@ impl PyCStructure {
 impl Initializer for PyCStructure {
     type Args = FuncArgs;
 
-    fn init(zelf: crate::PyRef<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+    fn init(zelf: &crate::Py<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
         // Struct_init: handle positional and keyword arguments
         let cls = zelf.class().to_owned();
 
         // 1. Process positional arguments recursively through inheritance chain
         if !args.args.is_empty() {
-            let consumed = Self::init_pos_args(&zelf, &cls, &args.args, &args.kwargs, 0, vm)?;
+            let consumed = Self::init_pos_args(zelf, &cls, &args.args, &args.kwargs, 0, vm)?;
 
             if consumed < args.args.len() {
                 return Err(vm.new_type_error("too many initializers"));
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ctypes/union.rs b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ctypes/union.rs
index e03200041..c1d49374e 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ctypes/union.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_ctypes/union.rs
@@ -67,9 +67,9 @@ impl Constructor for PyCUnionType {
 impl Initializer for PyCUnionType {
     type Args = FuncArgs;
 
-    fn init(zelf: crate::PyRef<Self>, _args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+    fn init(zelf: &crate::Py<Self>, _args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
         // Get the type as PyTypeRef by converting PyRef<Self> -> PyObjectRef -> PyRef<PyType>
-        let obj: PyObjectRef = zelf.into();
+        let obj: PyObjectRef = zelf.to_owned().into();
         let new_type: PyTypeRef = obj
             .downcast()
             .map_err(|_| vm.new_type_error("expected type"))?;
@@ -637,13 +637,13 @@ impl PyCUnion {
 impl Initializer for PyCUnion {
     type Args = FuncArgs;
 
-    fn init(zelf: crate::PyRef<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+    fn init(zelf: &crate::Py<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
         // Struct_init: handle positional and keyword arguments
         let cls = zelf.class().to_owned();
 
         // 1. Process positional arguments recursively through inheritance chain
         if !args.args.is_empty() {
-            let consumed = Self::init_pos_args(&zelf, &cls, &args.args, &args.kwargs, 0, vm)?;
+            let consumed = Self::init_pos_args(zelf, &cls, &args.args, &args.kwargs, 0, vm)?;
 
             if consumed < args.args.len() {
                 return Err(vm.new_type_error("too many initializers"));
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_functools.rs b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_functools.rs
index 1c7b45bb4..e52f455bc 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_functools.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_functools.rs
@@ -550,16 +550,18 @@ mod _functools {
 
     impl GetDescriptor for PyPartial {
         fn descr_get(
-            zelf: PyObjectRef,
-            obj: Option<PyObjectRef>,
-            _cls: Option<PyObjectRef>,
+            zelf: &PyObject,
+            obj: Option<&PyObject>,
+            _cls: Option<&PyObject>,
             vm: &VirtualMachine,
         ) -> PyResult {
             let obj = match obj {
-                Some(obj) if !vm.is_none(&obj) => obj,
-                _ => return Ok(zelf),
+                Some(obj) if !vm.is_none(obj) => obj,
+                _ => return Ok(zelf.to_owned()),
             };
-            Ok(PyBoundMethod::new(obj, zelf).into_ref(&vm.ctx).into())
+            Ok(PyBoundMethod::new(obj.to_owned(), zelf.to_owned())
+                .into_ref(&vm.ctx)
+                .into())
         }
     }
 
@@ -895,16 +897,18 @@ mod _functools {
 
     impl GetDescriptor for PyLruCacheWrapper {
         fn descr_get(
-            zelf: PyObjectRef,
-            obj: Option<PyObjectRef>,
-            _cls: Option<PyObjectRef>,
+            zelf: &PyObject,
+            obj: Option<&PyObject>,
+            _cls: Option<&PyObject>,
             vm: &VirtualMachine,
         ) -> PyResult {
             let obj = match obj {
-                Some(obj) if !vm.is_none(&obj) => obj,
-                _ => return Ok(zelf),
+                Some(obj) if !vm.is_none(obj) => obj,
+                _ => return Ok(zelf.to_owned()),
             };
-            Ok(PyBoundMethod::new(obj, zelf).into_ref(&vm.ctx).into())
+            Ok(PyBoundMethod::new(obj.to_owned(), zelf.to_owned())
+                .into_ref(&vm.ctx)
+                .into())
         }
     }
 }
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_io.rs b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_io.rs
index ac8bef74c..fe98d5f43 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_io.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_io.rs
@@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ const DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE: usize = 128 * 1024;
 fn iobase_finalize(zelf: &PyObject, vm: &VirtualMachine) {
     // If `closed` doesn't exist or can't be evaluated as bool, then the
     // object is probably in an unusable state, so ignore.
-    let closed = match vm.get_attribute_opt(zelf.to_owned(), "closed") {
+    let closed = match vm.get_attribute_opt(zelf, "closed") {
         Ok(Some(val)) => match val.try_to_bool(vm) {
             Ok(b) => b,
             Err(_) => return,
@@ -71,7 +71,7 @@ impl TryFromObject for Fildes {
         let int = match obj.downcast::<int::PyInt>() {
             Ok(i) => i,
             Err(obj) => {
-                let fileno_meth = vm.get_attribute_opt(obj, "fileno")?.ok_or_else(|| {
+                let fileno_meth = vm.get_attribute_opt(&obj, "fileno")?.ok_or_else(|| {
                     vm.new_type_error("argument must be an int, or have a fileno() method.")
                 })?;
                 fileno_meth
@@ -1627,8 +1627,8 @@ mod _io {
         }
 
         #[pyslot]
-        fn slot_init(zelf: PyObjectRef, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
-            let zelf: PyRef<Self> = zelf.try_into_value(vm)?;
+        fn slot_init(zelf: &PyObject, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+            let zelf: &Py<Self> = zelf.try_to_ref(vm)?;
             let (raw, BufferSize { buffer_size }): (PyObjectRef, _) =
                 args.bind(vm).map_err(|e| {
                     let str_repr = e.__str__(vm).as_wtf8().to_owned();
@@ -2252,7 +2252,7 @@ mod _io {
         type Args = (PyObjectRef, PyObjectRef, BufferSize);
 
         fn init(
-            zelf: PyRef<Self>,
+            zelf: &Py<Self>,
             (reader, writer, buffer_size): Self::Args,
             vm: &VirtualMachine,
         ) -> PyResult<()> {
@@ -2427,10 +2427,10 @@ mod _io {
     fn reduce_ex_for_subclass(zelf: &PyObject, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult {
         let cls = zelf.class();
         let new = vm
-            .get_attribute_opt(cls.to_owned().into(), "__new__")?
+            .get_attribute_opt(cls.as_object(), "__new__")?
             .ok_or_else(|| vm.new_attribute_error("type has no attribute '__new__'"))?;
         let args = vm.ctx.new_tuple(vec![cls.to_owned().into()]);
-        let state = if let Some(getstate) = vm.get_attribute_opt(zelf.to_owned(), "__getstate__")? {
+        let state = if let Some(getstate) = vm.get_attribute_opt(zelf, "__getstate__")? {
             getstate.call((), vm)?
         } else if let Ok(dict) = zelf.get_attr("__dict__", vm) {
             dict
@@ -2771,11 +2771,7 @@ mod _io {
     impl Initializer for TextIOWrapper {
         type Args = (PyObjectRef, TextIOWrapperArgs);
 
-        fn init(
-            zelf: PyRef<Self>,
-            (buffer, args): Self::Args,
-            vm: &VirtualMachine,
-        ) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, (buffer, args): Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             let mut data = zelf.lock_opt(vm)?;
             *data = None;
 
@@ -2784,7 +2780,7 @@ mod _io {
             let errors = args.errors.unwrap_or_else(|| vm.ctx.new_utf8_str("strict"));
             Self::validate_errors(&errors, vm)?;
 
-            let has_read1 = vm.get_attribute_opt(buffer.clone(), "read1")?.is_some();
+            let has_read1 = vm.get_attribute_opt(&buffer, "read1")?.is_some();
             let seekable = vm.call_method(&buffer, "seekable", ())?.try_to_bool(vm)?;
 
             let newline = match args.newline {
@@ -2832,8 +2828,8 @@ mod _io {
             Ok(())
         }
 
-        fn slot_init(zelf: PyObjectRef, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
-            let zelf_ref: PyRef<Self> = zelf.try_into_value(vm)?;
+        fn slot_init(zelf: &PyObject, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+            let zelf_ref: &Py<Self> = zelf.try_to_ref(vm)?;
             {
                 let mut data = zelf_ref.lock_opt(vm)?;
                 *data = None;
@@ -2978,7 +2974,7 @@ mod _io {
                                 || err.fast_isinstance(vm.ctx.exceptions.attribute_error) =>
                         {
                             let name = vm
-                                .get_attribute_opt(codec.as_tuple().to_owned().into(), "name")?
+                                .get_attribute_opt(codec.as_tuple().as_object(), "name")?
                                 .and_then(|obj| obj.downcast::<PyStr>().ok());
                             StatelessIncrementalEncoder {
                                 encode: codec.get_encode_func().to_owned(),
@@ -2990,7 +2986,7 @@ mod _io {
                         }
                         Err(err) => return Err(err),
                     };
-                let encoding_name = vm.get_attribute_opt(incremental_encoder.clone(), "name")?;
+                let encoding_name = vm.get_attribute_opt(&incremental_encoder, "name")?;
                 let encode_func = encoding_name.and_then(|name| {
                     let name = name.downcast_ref::<PyStr>()?;
                     match name.to_str()? {
@@ -3202,7 +3198,7 @@ mod _io {
             let Some(decoder) = &data.decoder else {
                 return Ok(None);
             };
-            vm.get_attribute_opt(decoder.clone(), "newlines")
+            vm.get_attribute_opt(decoder, "newlines")
         }
 
         #[pygetset(name = "_CHUNK_SIZE")]
@@ -4091,16 +4087,16 @@ mod _io {
             let mut result = Wtf8Buf::from(format!("<{type_name}"));
 
             // Add name if present
-            if let Ok(Some(name)) = vm.get_attribute_opt(data.buffer.clone(), "name") {
+            if let Ok(Some(name)) = vm.get_attribute_opt(&data.buffer, "name") {
                 let name_repr = name.repr(vm)?;
                 result.push_wtf8(" name=".as_ref());
                 result.push_wtf8(name_repr.as_wtf8());
             }
 
             // Add mode if present (prefer the wrapper's attribute)
-            let mode_obj = match vm.get_attribute_opt(zelf.as_object().to_owned(), "mode") {
+            let mode_obj = match vm.get_attribute_opt(zelf.as_object(), "mode") {
                 Ok(Some(mode)) => Some(mode),
-                Ok(None) | Err(_) => match vm.get_attribute_opt(data.buffer.clone(), "mode") {
+                Ok(None) | Err(_) => match vm.get_attribute_opt(&data.buffer, "mode") {
                     Ok(Some(mode)) => Some(mode),
                     _ => None,
                 },
@@ -4234,7 +4230,7 @@ mod _io {
 
     impl Initializer for IncrementalNewlineDecoder {
         type Args = IncrementalNewlineDecoderArgs;
-        fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             let _ = args.errors;
             let mut data = zelf.lock_opt(vm)?;
             *data = Some(IncrementalNewlineDecoderData {
@@ -4432,7 +4428,7 @@ mod _io {
         type Args = StringIONewArgs;
 
         fn init(
-            zelf: PyRef<Self>,
+            zelf: &Py<Self>,
             Self::Args { object, newline }: Self::Args,
             _vm: &VirtualMachine,
         ) -> PyResult<()> {
@@ -4769,7 +4765,7 @@ mod _io {
     impl Initializer for BytesIO {
         type Args = BytesIOArgs;
 
-        fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             if zelf.exports.load() > 0 {
                 return Err(
                     vm.new_buffer_error("Existing exports of data: object cannot be re-sized")
@@ -5558,8 +5554,7 @@ mod fileio {
     use super::{_io::*, Offset, iobase_finalize};
     use crate::host_env::crt_fd;
     use crate::{
-        AsObject, Py, PyObject, PyObjectRef, PyPayload, PyRef, PyResult, TryFromObject,
-        VirtualMachine,
+        AsObject, Py, PyObject, PyObjectRef, PyPayload, PyResult, TryFromObject, VirtualMachine,
         builtins::{PyBaseExceptionRef, PyUtf8Str, PyUtf8StrRef},
         common::wtf8::Wtf8Buf,
         convert::{IntoPyException, ToPyException},
@@ -5616,7 +5611,7 @@ mod fileio {
     impl Initializer for FileIO {
         type Args = FileIOArgs;
 
-        fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             // TODO: let atomic_flag_works
             let name = args.name;
             // Check if bool is used as file descriptor
@@ -6095,7 +6090,7 @@ mod fileio {
 mod winconsoleio {
     use super::{_io::*, iobase_finalize};
     use crate::{
-        AsObject, Py, PyObject, PyObjectRef, PyRef, PyResult, TryFromObject, VirtualMachine,
+        AsObject, Py, PyObject, PyObjectRef, PyResult, TryFromObject, VirtualMachine,
         builtins::{PyBaseExceptionRef, PyUtf8StrRef},
         common::{lock::PyMutex, wtf8::Wtf8Buf},
         convert::{IntoPyException, ToPyException},
@@ -6185,12 +6180,12 @@ mod winconsoleio {
     impl Initializer for WindowsConsoleIO {
         type Args = WindowsConsoleIOArgs;
 
-        fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
             let nameobj = args.name;
 
             if zelf.fd.load() >= 0 {
                 if zelf.closefd.load() {
-                    internal_close(&zelf);
+                    internal_close(zelf);
                 } else {
                     zelf.fd.store(-1);
                 }
@@ -6295,16 +6290,16 @@ mod winconsoleio {
 
             if console_type == '\0' {
                 // Not a console at all
-                internal_close(&zelf);
+                internal_close(zelf);
                 return Err(vm.new_value_error("Cannot open non-console file"));
             }
 
             if writable && console_type != 'w' {
-                internal_close(&zelf);
+                internal_close(zelf);
                 return Err(vm.new_value_error("Cannot open console input buffer for writing"));
             }
             if readable && console_type != 'r' {
-                internal_close(&zelf);
+                internal_close(zelf);
                 return Err(vm.new_value_error("Cannot open console output buffer for reading"));
             }
 
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_testinternalcapi.rs b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_testinternalcapi.rs
index a20774938..e5412dda7 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_testinternalcapi.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_testinternalcapi.rs
@@ -1628,14 +1628,14 @@ fn run_string_in_new_subinterp(
                 match target.run_code_obj(code, scope) {
                     Ok(_) => Ok(0),
                     Err(exc) => {
-                        target.print_exception(exc);
+                        target.print_exception(&exc);
                         Ok(-1)
                     }
                 }
             }
             Err(err) => {
                 let exc = err.into_pyexception(target, Some(source));
-                target.print_exception(exc);
+                target.print_exception(&exc);
                 Ok(-1)
             }
         }
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_thread.rs b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_thread.rs
index 22fb59a1e..bb8be094d 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_thread.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_thread.rs
@@ -1181,7 +1181,7 @@ pub(crate) mod _thread {
                 return Ok(dict);
             };
             let init_args = zelf.inner.state.lock().init_args.clone();
-            if let Err(err) = init(zelf.as_object().to_owned(), init_args, vm) {
+            if let Err(err) = init(zelf.as_object(), init_args, vm) {
                 zelf.remove_current_dict();
                 return Err(err);
             }
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_warnings.rs b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_warnings.rs
index 99d8fc72d..9e6d6bdb2 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_warnings.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/_warnings.rs
@@ -149,7 +149,7 @@ mod _warnings {
             category,
             level,
             args.source.into_option(),
-            skip_prefixes,
+            skip_prefixes.as_deref(),
             vm,
         )
     }
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/builtins.rs b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/builtins.rs
index 2f7145047..034749d72 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/builtins.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/builtins.rs
@@ -697,7 +697,7 @@ mod builtins {
         })?;
 
         if let OptionalArg::Present(default) = default {
-            Ok(vm.get_attribute_opt(obj, attr)?.unwrap_or(default))
+            Ok(vm.get_attribute_opt(&obj, attr)?.unwrap_or(default))
         } else {
             obj.get_attr(attr, vm)
         }
@@ -716,7 +716,7 @@ mod builtins {
                 name.class().name()
             ))
         })?;
-        Ok(vm.get_attribute_opt(obj, attr)?.is_some())
+        Ok(vm.get_attribute_opt(&obj, attr)?.is_some())
     }
 
     #[pyfunction]
@@ -1254,7 +1254,13 @@ mod builtins {
             .name
             .downcast_ref::<PyStr>()
             .ok_or_else(|| vm.new_type_error("module name must be a string"))?;
-        crate::import::import_module_level(name, args.globals, args.fromlist, args.level, vm)
+        crate::import::import_module_level(
+            name,
+            args.globals.as_deref(),
+            args.fromlist,
+            args.level,
+            vm,
+        )
     }
 
     #[pyfunction]
@@ -1287,8 +1293,7 @@ mod builtins {
                 }
                 continue;
             }
-            let mro_entries =
-                vm.get_attribute_opt(base.clone(), identifier!(vm, __mro_entries__))?;
+            let mro_entries = vm.get_attribute_opt(base, identifier!(vm, __mro_entries__))?;
             let entries = match mro_entries {
                 Some(meth) => meth.call((bases.clone(),), vm)?,
                 None => {
@@ -1357,7 +1362,7 @@ mod builtins {
 
         // Prepare uses full __getattribute__ resolution chain.
         let namespace = vm
-            .get_attribute_opt(metaclass.clone(), identifier!(vm, __prepare__))?
+            .get_attribute_opt(&metaclass, identifier!(vm, __prepare__))?
             .map_or(Ok(vm.ctx.new_dict().into()), |prepare| {
                 let args = FuncArgs::new(vec![name_obj.clone(), bases.clone()], kwargs.clone());
                 prepare.call(args, vm)
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/sys.rs b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/sys.rs
index d15e65603..0ee88f26b 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/sys.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/sys.rs
@@ -913,7 +913,7 @@ pub mod sys {
             }
         };
 
-        match vm.get_attribute_opt(module, &vm.ctx.new_str(attr_name)) {
+        match vm.get_attribute_opt(&module, &vm.ctx.new_str(attr_name)) {
             Ok(Some(hook)) => hook.as_ref().call(args, vm),
             _ => print_unimportable_module_warn(),
         }
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/types/slot.rs b/crates/vm/src/types/slot.rs
index 182efcc66..28eb5fd78 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/types/slot.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/types/slot.rs
@@ -327,12 +327,12 @@ pub(crate) type RichCompareFunc = fn(
 pub(crate) type IterFunc = fn(PyObjectRef, &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult;
 pub(crate) type IterNextFunc = fn(&PyObject, &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<PyIterReturn>;
 pub(crate) type DescrGetFunc =
-    fn(PyObjectRef, Option<PyObjectRef>, Option<PyObjectRef>, &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult;
+    fn(&PyObject, Option<&PyObject>, Option<&PyObject>, &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult;
 pub(crate) type DescrSetFunc =
     fn(&PyObject, PyObjectRef, PySetterValue, &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()>;
 pub(crate) type AllocFunc = fn(PyTypeRef, usize, &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult;
 pub(crate) type NewFunc = fn(PyTypeRef, FuncArgs, &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult;
-pub(crate) type InitFunc = fn(PyObjectRef, FuncArgs, &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()>;
+pub(crate) type InitFunc = fn(&PyObject, FuncArgs, &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()>;
 pub(crate) type DelFunc = fn(&PyObject, &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()>;
 
 // Sequence sub-slot function types
@@ -691,15 +691,19 @@ fn iternext_wrapper(zelf: &PyObject, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<PyIterRetu
 }
 
 fn descr_get_wrapper(
-    zelf: PyObjectRef,
-    obj: Option<PyObjectRef>,
-    cls: Option<PyObjectRef>,
+    zelf: &PyObject,
+    obj: Option<&PyObject>,
+    cls: Option<&PyObject>,
     vm: &VirtualMachine,
 ) -> PyResult {
     // A descriptor whose `__get__` is the descriptor itself resolves it by
     // fetching `__get__` again, and none of that pushes a Python frame.
     vm.with_recursion("while calling a Python object", || {
-        vm.call_special_method(&zelf, identifier!(vm, __get__), (obj, cls))
+        vm.call_special_method(
+            zelf,
+            identifier!(vm, __get__),
+            (obj.map(PyObject::to_owned), cls.map(PyObject::to_owned)),
+        )
     })
 }
 
@@ -718,8 +722,8 @@ fn descr_set_wrapper(
     .map(drop)
 }
 
-fn init_wrapper(obj: PyObjectRef, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
-    let res = vm.call_special_method(&obj, identifier!(vm, __init__), args)?;
+fn init_wrapper(obj: &PyObject, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+    let res = vm.call_special_method(obj, identifier!(vm, __init__), args)?;
     if !vm.is_none(&res) {
         return Err(vm.new_type_error(format!(
             "__init__() should return None, not '{:.200}'",
@@ -1857,7 +1861,7 @@ pub trait DefaultConstructor: PyPayload + Default + core::fmt::Debug {
         Self: Initializer,
     {
         let this = Self::default().into_ref(&vm.ctx);
-        Self::init(this.clone(), args, vm)?;
+        Self::init(&this, args, vm)?;
         Ok(this)
     }
 }
@@ -1883,11 +1887,11 @@ pub trait Initializer: PyPayload {
 
     #[inline]
     #[pyslot]
-    fn slot_init(zelf: PyObjectRef, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+    fn slot_init(zelf: &PyObject, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
         #[cfg(debug_assertions)]
         let class_name_for_debug = zelf.class().name().to_string();
 
-        let zelf = match zelf.try_into_value(vm) {
+        let zelf = match zelf.try_to_ref::<Self>(vm) {
             Ok(zelf) => zelf,
             Err(err) => {
                 #[cfg(debug_assertions)]
@@ -1911,7 +1915,7 @@ pub trait Initializer: PyPayload {
         Self::init(zelf, args, vm)
     }
 
-    fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()>;
+    fn init(zelf: &Py<Self>, args: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()>;
 }
 
 #[pyclass]
@@ -1957,9 +1961,9 @@ pub trait Callable: PyPayload {
 pub trait GetDescriptor: PyPayload {
     #[pyslot]
     fn descr_get(
-        zelf: PyObjectRef,
-        obj: Option<PyObjectRef>,
-        cls: Option<PyObjectRef>,
+        zelf: &PyObject,
+        obj: Option<&PyObject>,
+        cls: Option<&PyObject>,
         vm: &VirtualMachine,
     ) -> PyResult;
 
@@ -1969,22 +1973,22 @@ pub trait GetDescriptor: PyPayload {
     }
 
     #[inline]
-    fn _unwrap<'a>(
+    fn _unwrap<'a, 'b>(
         zelf: &'a PyObject,
-        obj: Option<PyObjectRef>,
-        vm: &VirtualMachine,
-    ) -> PyResult<(&'a Py<Self>, PyObjectRef)> {
+        obj: Option<&'b PyObject>,
+        vm: &'b VirtualMachine,
+    ) -> PyResult<(&'a Py<Self>, &'b PyObject)> {
         let zelf = Self::_as_pyref(zelf, vm)?;
-        let obj = vm.unwrap_or_none(obj);
+        let obj = obj.unwrap_or_else(|| vm.ctx.none.as_object());
         Ok((zelf, obj))
     }
 
     #[inline]
-    fn _check<'a>(
+    fn _check<'a, 'b>(
         zelf: &'a PyObject,
-        obj: Option<PyObjectRef>,
+        obj: Option<&'b PyObject>,
         vm: &VirtualMachine,
-    ) -> Option<(&'a Py<Self>, PyObjectRef)> {
+    ) -> Option<(&'a Py<Self>, &'b PyObject)> {
         // CPython descr_check
         let obj = obj?;
         // if (!PyObject_TypeCheck(obj, descr->d_type)) {
@@ -2001,8 +2005,8 @@ pub trait GetDescriptor: PyPayload {
     }
 
     #[inline]
-    fn _cls_is(cls: &Option<PyObjectRef>, other: &impl Borrow<PyObject>) -> bool {
-        cls.as_ref().is_some_and(|cls| other.borrow().is(cls))
+    fn _cls_is(cls: &Option<&PyObject>, other: &impl Borrow<PyObject>) -> bool {
+        cls.is_some_and(|cls| other.borrow().is(cls))
     }
 }
 
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/vm/method.rs b/crates/vm/src/vm/method.rs
index e53289c6c..723d0d13a 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/vm/method.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/vm/method.rs
@@ -52,8 +52,8 @@ impl PyMethod {
                     if let Some(descr_get) = descr_get
                         && descr_cls.slots.descr_set.load().is_some()
                     {
-                        let cls = cls.to_owned().into();
-                        return descr_get(descr, Some(obj), Some(cls), vm).map(Self::Attribute);
+                        return descr_get(descr.as_object(), Some(&obj), Some(cls.as_object()), vm)
+                            .map(Self::Attribute);
                     }
                     descr_get
                 };
@@ -75,8 +75,8 @@ impl PyMethod {
                     func: attr,
                 }),
                 Some(descr_get) => {
-                    let cls = cls.to_owned().into();
-                    descr_get(attr, Some(obj), Some(cls), vm).map(Self::Attribute)
+                    descr_get(attr.as_object(), Some(&obj), Some(cls.as_object()), vm)
+                        .map(Self::Attribute)
                 }
                 None => Ok(Self::Attribute(attr)),
             }
@@ -130,19 +130,21 @@ impl PyMethod {
                 func,
             }
         } else {
-            let obj_cls = obj_cls.to_owned().into();
-            let attr =
-                match vm.call_get_descriptor_specific(&func, Some(obj.to_owned()), Some(obj_cls)) {
-                    Some(Ok(attr)) => attr,
-                    Some(Err(e))
-                        if !raise_attribute_error
-                            && e.fast_isinstance(vm.ctx.exceptions.attribute_error) =>
-                    {
-                        return Ok(None);
-                    }
-                    Some(Err(e)) => return Err(e),
-                    None => func,
-                };
+            let attr = match vm.call_get_descriptor_specific(
+                &func,
+                Some(obj),
+                Some(obj_cls.as_object()),
+            ) {
+                Some(Ok(attr)) => attr,
+                Some(Err(e))
+                    if !raise_attribute_error
+                        && e.fast_isinstance(vm.ctx.exceptions.attribute_error) =>
+                {
+                    return Ok(None);
+                }
+                Some(Err(e)) => return Err(e),
+                None => func,
+            };
             Self::Attribute(attr)
         };
         Ok(Some(meth))
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/vm/mod.rs b/crates/vm/src/vm/mod.rs
index c2b9f6bdd..c0750c7b8 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/vm/mod.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/vm/mod.rs
@@ -1533,7 +1533,7 @@ impl VirtualMachine {
             eprintln!(
                 "importlib initialization failed. This is critical for many complicated packages."
             );
-            self.print_exception(e);
+            self.print_exception(&e);
         }
 
         #[cfg(not(feature = "host_env"))]
@@ -1548,7 +1548,7 @@ impl VirtualMachine {
                 eprintln!(
                     "encodings initialization failed. Only utf-8 encoding will be supported."
                 );
-                self.print_exception(e);
+                self.print_exception(&e);
             }
         } else {
             // Here may not be the best place to give general `path_list` advice,
@@ -3435,7 +3435,7 @@ impl VirtualMachine {
 
     pub fn get_attribute_opt<'a>(
         &self,
-        obj: PyObjectRef,
+        obj: &PyObject,
         attr_name: impl AsPyStr<'a>,
     ) -> PyResult<Option<PyObjectRef>> {
         let attr_name = attr_name.as_pystr(&self.ctx);
@@ -3736,7 +3736,7 @@ impl VirtualMachine {
             }
             1
         } else if exc.fast_isinstance(self.ctx.exceptions.keyboard_interrupt) {
-            self.print_exception(exc);
+            self.print_exception(&exc);
             cfg_select! {
                 unix => {
                     if crate::host_env::signal::set_sigint_default_onstack().is_ok() {
@@ -3752,7 +3752,7 @@ impl VirtualMachine {
                 _ => 1,
             }
         } else {
-            self.print_exception(exc);
+            self.print_exception(&exc);
             1
         }
     }
@@ -3879,7 +3879,7 @@ mod tests {
                     .unwrap();
 
                 if let Err(e) = vm.run_code_obj(code_obj, scope) {
-                    vm.print_exception(e);
+                    vm.print_exception(&e);
                     panic!();
                 }
             })
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/vm/vm_new.rs b/crates/vm/src/vm/vm_new.rs
index 0d89fe526..679b12bc8 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/vm/vm_new.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/vm/vm_new.rs
@@ -467,7 +467,7 @@ impl VirtualMachine {
             cls.name()
         );
         let obj = T::slot_new(cls, args.clone(), self)?;
-        T::slot_init(obj.clone(), args, self)?;
+        T::slot_init(&obj, args, self)?;
         obj.downcast().map_err(|obj| {
             self.new_type_error(format!(
                 "payload constructor returned '{}'",
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/vm/vm_object.rs b/crates/vm/src/vm/vm_object.rs
index 9ab26ddff..789979add 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/vm/vm_object.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/vm/vm_object.rs
@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ impl VirtualMachine {
                 }
             },
             _ => {
-                self.print_exception(exc);
+                self.print_exception(&exc);
                 self.flush_std();
                 panic!("{msg}")
             }
@@ -106,20 +106,19 @@ impl VirtualMachine {
     pub fn call_get_descriptor_specific(
         &self,
         descr: &PyObject,
-        obj: Option<PyObjectRef>,
-        cls: Option<PyObjectRef>,
+        obj: Option<&PyObject>,
+        cls: Option<&PyObject>,
     ) -> Option<PyResult> {
         let descr_get = descr.class().slots.descr_get.load()?;
-        Some(descr_get(descr.to_owned(), obj, cls, self))
+        Some(descr_get(descr, obj, cls, self))
     }
 
-    pub fn call_get_descriptor(&self, descr: &PyObject, obj: PyObjectRef) -> Option<PyResult> {
-        let cls = obj.class().to_owned().into();
-        self.call_get_descriptor_specific(descr, Some(obj), Some(cls))
+    pub fn call_get_descriptor(&self, descr: &PyObject, obj: &PyObject) -> Option<PyResult> {
+        self.call_get_descriptor_specific(descr, Some(obj), Some(obj.class().as_object()))
     }
 
     pub fn call_if_get_descriptor(&self, attr: &PyObject, obj: PyObjectRef) -> PyResult {
-        self.call_get_descriptor(attr, obj)
+        self.call_get_descriptor(attr, &obj)
             .unwrap_or_else(|| Ok(attr.to_owned()))
     }
 
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/warn.rs b/crates/vm/src/warn.rs
index 83c940427..1e9888ce7 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/warn.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/warn.rs
@@ -137,7 +137,7 @@ fn get_warnings_attr(
         }
     };
 
-    vm.get_attribute_opt(module, attr_name)
+    vm.get_attribute_opt(&module, attr_name)
 }
 
 /// Get the warnings filters list from `sys.modules['warnings'].filters`,
@@ -212,7 +212,7 @@ pub(crate) fn get_source_line(
         }
     };
 
-    let Some(get_source) = vm.get_attribute_opt(loader, vm.ctx.intern_str("get_source"))? else {
+    let Some(get_source) = vm.get_attribute_opt(&loader, vm.ctx.intern_str("get_source"))? else {
         return Ok(None);
     };
     let source = get_source.call((module_name,), vm)?;
@@ -474,17 +474,16 @@ pub fn warn_with_skip(
     category: Option<PyTypeRef>,
     mut stack_level: isize,
     source: Option<PyObjectRef>,
-    skip_file_prefixes: Option<PyTupleRef>,
+    skip_file_prefixes: Option<&Py<PyTuple>>,
     vm: &VirtualMachine,
 ) -> PyResult<()> {
-    if let Some(ref prefixes) = skip_file_prefixes
+    if let Some(prefixes) = skip_file_prefixes
         && !prefixes.is_empty()
         && stack_level < 2
     {
         stack_level = 2;
     }
-    let (filename, lineno, module, registry) =
-        setup_context(stack_level, skip_file_prefixes.as_deref(), vm)?;
+    let (filename, lineno, module, registry) = setup_context(stack_level, skip_file_prefixes, vm)?;
     warn_explicit(
         category, message, filename, lineno, module, registry, None, source, vm,
     )
@@ -595,7 +594,7 @@ pub fn warn_explicit(
 
     call_show_warning(
         category,
-        text,
+        &text,
         message,
         filename,
         lineno,
@@ -609,7 +608,7 @@ pub fn warn_explicit(
 #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
 fn call_show_warning(
     category: PyTypeRef,
-    text: PyStrRef,
+    text: &Py<PyStr>,
     message: PyObjectRef,
     filename: PyStrRef,
     lineno: usize,
@@ -620,7 +619,7 @@ fn call_show_warning(
 ) -> PyResult<()> {
     let Some(show_fn) = get_warnings_attr(vm, identifier!(vm, _showwarnmsg), source.is_some())?
     else {
-        show_warning(&filename, lineno, &text, &category, source_line, vm);
+        show_warning(&filename, lineno, text, &category, source_line, vm);
         return Ok(());
     };
 
diff --git a/crates/wasm/src/js_module.rs b/crates/wasm/src/js_module.rs
index 84a5a37e4..646c35676 100644
--- a/crates/wasm/src/js_module.rs
+++ b/crates/wasm/src/js_module.rs
@@ -446,7 +446,7 @@ mod _js {
         }
 
         fn cast(obj: PyObjectRef, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<Self> {
-            let then = vm.get_attribute_opt(obj.clone(), "then")?;
+            let then = vm.get_attribute_opt(&obj, "then")?;
             let value = if let Some(then) = then.filter(|obj| obj.is_callable()) {
                 PromiseKind::PyProm { then }
             } else {
diff --git a/examples/freeze/main.rs b/examples/freeze/main.rs
index ffbc45639..7fef112df 100644
--- a/examples/freeze/main.rs
+++ b/examples/freeze/main.rs
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ fn run(vm: &vm::VirtualMachine) -> vm::PyResult<()> {
     let res = vm.run_code_obj(vm.ctx.new_code(module), scope);
 
     if let Err(exc) = res {
-        vm.print_exception(exc);
+        vm.print_exception(&exc);
     }
 
     Ok(())
diff --git a/examples/mini_repl.rs b/examples/mini_repl.rs
index 1f8095aa9..f154c20e0 100644
--- a/examples/mini_repl.rs
+++ b/examples/mini_repl.rs
@@ -76,7 +76,7 @@ def fib(n):
                 }
             }
             Err(exc) => {
-                vm.print_exception(exc);
+                vm.print_exception(&exc);
             }
         }
     }
diff --git a/src/shell.rs b/src/shell.rs
index 3ef093716..d727003e6 100644
--- a/src/shell.rs
+++ b/src/shell.rs
@@ -213,7 +213,7 @@ pub fn run_shell(vm: &VirtualMachine, scope: Scope) -> PyResult<()> {
                     vm.ctx.exceptions.os_error.to_owned(),
                     format!("{num:?}").into(),
                 );
-                vm.print_exception(os_error);
+                vm.print_exception(&os_error);
                 break;
             }
             ReadlineResult::Other(err) => {
@@ -231,7 +231,7 @@ pub fn run_shell(vm: &VirtualMachine, scope: Scope) -> PyResult<()> {
                 repl.save_history(&repl_history_path).unwrap();
                 return Err(exc);
             }
-            vm.print_exception(exc);
+            vm.print_exception(&exc);
         }
         flush_stdio(vm);
     }
diff --git a/tests/benchmark_scripts.rs b/tests/benchmark_scripts.rs
index 786c70942..db7af23a0 100644
--- a/tests/benchmark_scripts.rs
+++ b/tests/benchmark_scripts.rs
@@ -40,7 +40,7 @@ fn pyperformance_benchmarks_run_in_rustpython() {
                     .unwrap_or_else(|err| panic!("failed to compile {}: {err}", path.display()));
                 let scope = vm.new_scope_with_builtins();
                 if let Err(err) = vm.run_code_obj(code, scope) {
-                    vm.print_exception(err);
+                    vm.print_exception(&err);
                     panic!("failed to execute {}", path.display());
                 }
             });
@@ -78,7 +78,7 @@ assert decimal.getcontext().prec == decimal_precision
         .interpreter()
         .enter(|vm| {
             if let Err(err) = vm.run_simple_string(source) {
-                vm.print_exception(err);
+                vm.print_exception(&err);
                 panic!("pyperformance benchmarks leaked interpreter state");
             }
         });